In Germany, the organizational form that meets the three criteria for hybridity (described in Section 3.3.4) are the dual study programs.74 It can be argued that these programs represent a specifically “German model” (Interview DE1, DE5).75 Broadly speaking, dual study programs combine in-company work experience with tertiary studies at vocational academies (Berufsakademien), cooperative universities (Duale Hochschulen), universities of applied science, or universities.76 In other words, there are always at least two learning envi- ronments, and in about a third of the dual study programs the vocational school is integrated as a third location (Waldhausen and Werner, 2005: 50). Furthermore, in dual study programs, students and firms are bound by a training, part-time, practical training (voluntariats-), or internship contract (e.g., BIBB, 2010; Kupfer and Stertz, 2010). Dual studies are usually offered at Bachelor degree level. Dual studies integrating a Master degree are still very rare. In 2009, only approximately 2–3% of all dual study programs were offered at Master degree level (Busse, 2009: 31).
The field of dual study programs has emerged over approximately the last 40 years and is characterized by considerable heterogeneity of organiza- tional forms (Waldhausen and Werner, 2005: 27). In the 1990s, the Higher Education Information System (HIS) in Hanover established a first rough taxonomy (Holtkamp, 1996), which was further refined by the BIBB (Mucke and Schwiedrzik, 2000; Kupfer and Mucke, 2010). The four next paragraphs closely follow and slightly adapt the description by Kupfer and Mucke (2010: 5–6, translations by LG).
Dual study programs integrating an initial VET certificate (ausbildungs- integrierende duale Studiengänge): These programs usually last three or four years and are typically designed for people without VET training or voca- tional experience who hold a university or university of applied sciences
74 It can be argued that HE in Germany is generally closer to vocational education than, e.g., in France (I thank Arndt Sorge for pointing this out to me). German universities are thus al- so influenced by the vocational principle. However, even if, e.g., German technical univer- sities provide certain linkages to the VET sector, they still do not fulfill the criteria for hybridity outlined in Chapter 3, e.g. due to the lack of systematic integration of VET ele- ments as well as their more academic mode of governance.
75 Appendix 11.1 contains a detailed list of the expert interviews carried out in Germany. 76 For the sake of simplicity, these four different types of host organizations are sometimes
referred to together as higher education institutes (or HE institutes) in the following. While vocational academies belong to the post-secondary educational level, they are not officially regarded as higher education institutes (Hochschulen) (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2013). However, if a Bachelor degree awarded by a vocational academy is formally accredited, then this degree is regarded as equivalent to a Bachelor degree from a higher education in- stitute (KMK, 2004).
entrance certificate.77 Normally, students first have to sign a training contract with a firm. Students acquire an official upper-secondary level VET certifi- cate registered by the Chamber of Commerce (IHK)/Chamber of Crafts (HWK) or a certificate granted by full-time vocational schools (fach- schulische Ausbildung). Training in vocational schools can be, but need not be, part of ausbildungsintegrierende programs (Interview DE9).78 The school-based training required for these VET certificates is accomplished in a “fast-track” (i.e. faster than is the case in regular dual apprenticeships). Theoretical and work-based learning are integrated in different ways: in-firm phases may, for example, take place a few days every week or en-bloc at 8 to 16-week intervals. At the end of the program, students gain a Bachelor de- gree. Thus, ausbildungsintegrierende dual study programs combine two qualifications that are formally not located at the same educational level (see also Rauner, 2007: 2).79
Dual study programs integrating work practice (praxisintegrierende duale Studiengänge): Again, these programs are designed for people without VET training or vocational experience who hold a university or university of applied sciences entrance certificate. In praxisintegrierende programs the students do not necessarily acquire an official VET certificate (but a Bachelor degree) (Becker, 2006: 9). Students need a contract with a firm and studies usually last three years (Minks, Netz, and Völk, 2011: 36). Work experience phases of different lengths are integrated and extend far beyond the some- times obligatory internships required in “traditional” HE programs. Also, in comparison to standard programs at universities of applied sciences, in prax- isintegrierende dual study programs more attention is paid to adjusting cur- ricula to the in-firm phases in the respective courses of study (Interview DE2).
Dual study programs integrating an occupation (berufsintegrierende duale Studiengänge): These programs are best suited for people who have completed initial VET training and have acquired a university or university
77 However, people who hold an official IVET certificate and have gained additional work experience are eligible for access to HE programs in related fields of study, too (according to a decision by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany: Hochschulzugang für beruflich quali-
fizierte Bewerber ohne schulische Hochschulzugangsberechtingung, 6 March 2009, see
Section 3.3.4).
78 Depending on the local organizational arrangement, the training towards the VET certifi- cate, which traditionally takes place at vocational schools, can also be carried out by the vocational academy, university of applied science, or university.
79 There are also a very small number of programs in Germany that combine a Meister certificate with a Bachelor degree (see also Rauner, 2007). In the case of the Trialer
Studiengang Handwerksmanagement in Cologne it is even possible to combine an IVET, a Meister, and a Bachelor qualification (Handwerkskammer zu Köln, 2012). However, these
models are the exception to the common dual study combination of an IVET qualification plus a Bachelor degree.
of applied sciences entrance certificate. An existing part-time work contract is a precondition for this type of dual studies (to put it more positively, pro- spective students need not give up their job). The programs usually last three to four years and the curriculum should refer to the respective in-firm experi- ence. In some select programs, a Meister qualification is integrated or at least elements that count towards this qualification. Furthermore, there are dual study programs for which a Meister qualification is an entry requirement that then counts towards the Bachelor degree (thus reducing the overall study load).
Dual study programs accompanying an occupation (berufsbegleitende duale Studiengänge): These programs serve students with and without a university or university of applied sciences entrance qualification. They resemble distance-learning programs, as students are usually employed full time and study on their own in their free time or can visit accompanying seminars. However, in contrast to distance-learning programs, the firm is supposed to assist students in successfully completing the program, for ex- ample by exempting them from work (e.g., during classes at the higher edu- cation institute) or in enabling them to gain specific work experience. In contrast to the three above-mentioned types of programs, these programs leave it up to the student to integrate the two settings, which limits a struc- tured integration of VET and HE (see Waldhausen and Werner, 2005: 52; Becker, 2006: 9).
The majority of dual study programs are offered by universities of ap- plied sciences (59%), the Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg (Baden- Württemberg Cooperative State University) (20%), vocational academies (16%), and universities (3%), followed by other HE institutes (2%). Offers of dual study programs at universities of applied sciences are growing fastest (BIBB, 2011a: 23). Vocational academies currently offer mostly praxis- integrierende programs, while universities of applied sciences focus on ausbildungsintegrierende programs. The traditional universities offer ausbil- dungsintegrierende programs only (Minks, Netz, and Völk, 2011: 34).80 Vocational academies have been established providers for quite a long time (Waldhausen and Werner, 2005: 29–30) and tend to distinguish themselves from dual study programs offered by universities of applied sciences and traditional universities through an even greater orientation to practice and sometimes through shorter study programs (Waldhausen and Werner, 2005: 36). In total, around 26,000 cooperative relationships have been established between firms and different organizational forms within the dual studies framework (Kupfer and Stertz, 2010: 37).
In April 2011, 61,195 students were registered in the database Ausbild- ungPlus.de (BIBB, 2011a: 23). However, the real number of students in dual
80 In the following the shorter German terms are mostly used to refer to these four different types of dual study programs.
study programs will be far higher as the providers of dual study programs report student numbers on a voluntary basis (BIBB, 2011a: 23). Yet, it should be noted that – due to their firm-driven supply – dual study programs are only offered in specific subjects and most commonly in engineering sciences, law, economics, business sciences, and math and natural sciences (Table 11 pro- vides an overview of the number of programs offered in different subjects and on the distribution of the four types of dual study programs). In these subjects the proportion of students enrolled in dual study programs relative to traditional HE programs is significant. Dual studies are a segment that is rapidly growing and attracting increasing attention from all major stakehold- ers (Interviews DE1–8). After the founding decades in the 1970s and 1980s, a second wave of launches can be observed from the late 1990s onwards. This time, however, the expansion in particular took place at universities of ap- plied sciences (Waldhausen and Werner, 2005: 33). The number of students enrolled in dual study programs increased by approximately 70% between 2005 and 2011 (Becker, 2012). The number of students in dual study pro- grams registered in the database AusbildungPlus.de rose by 6.1% within one year between 2009 and 2010 (BIBB, 2010: 24). The greatest growth can be observed in the STEM subjects (BIBB, 2011c).81
Table 11: Number of dual study programs by type, Germany, 2010
Subject Type of dual study program
Ausbild- ungs- integrierend Praxis- integrierend Berufs- intgerierend Berufs- begleitend Total Engineering sciences 180 82 6 10 278 (52.1%)
Math and natural sciences 36 35 2 3 76 (14.2%) Agricultural and forestry sciences 3 1 - - 4 (0.7%) Medicine, healthcare 11 1 5 1 18 (3.4%) Law, economics, and business sciences 60 62 7 13 142 (26.6%) Social sciences 2 4 6 4 16 (3%) Total 292 (54.7%) 185 (34.6%) 26 (4.9%) 31 (5.8%) 534 (100%)
Source: Kupfer and Mucke (2010: 6); translation and calculation of % values by LG
There are few scientific studies of dual study programs (see also Minks, Netz, and Völk, 2011: 111), which means that systemized data and analyses of the
81 STEM is an abbreviation for “science, technology, engineering, and math.”
vocational academies and also dual study programs more generally are hard to find. The Confederation of German Employers’ Associations (Bundersver- einigung der Deutschen Arbeitgeberverbände, BDA) refers to more than 900 dual study programs (BDA, 2011: 7). The BIBB lists 434 ausbildungs- integrierende and 373 praxisintegrierende dual study programs (BIBB, 2011a: 22). The BIBB is now picking up on the lack of systematized data as it is launching research projects on dual studies and trying to further develop its AusbildungPlus.de database (Interviews DE3, DE5, DE6).82 In the next step, I will outline the main hybrid characteristics of dual study programs. Hybrid Learning Process, Typical Pathway, and Certification
Dual studies straddle the boundary between HE and the world of work (Minks, Netz, and Völk, 2011: 1). The crucial point is that work experience and study phases are integrated to a significant extent, for example in terms of coordinated curricula. This point is decisive, as it distinguishes dual study programs provided by universities of applied sciences from regular programs offered at universities of applied sciences (Mucke and Schwiedrzik, 2000: 7). Dual study programs connect two didactic principles, namely practical train- ing and scientific orientation (Deißinger, 2000: 614 on vocational academies; Becker, 2006: 1 on dual studies in general). For example, the curricula at the Department of Cooperative Studies (Fachbereich duales Studium) at the Berlin School of Economics and Law are designed in cooperation with firms (Interview DE2). More generally, in dual study programs the involvement of firms in the set-up of dual study programs results in a hybrid learning pro- cess. Ideally, a subject-specific expert commission composed of representa- tives from the academy, the state, and the firm ensure that theory and practice are integrated (see Deißinger, 2000: 615 on vocational academies). Further- more, the teaching staff is composed of trainers from industry, vocational school teachers, and lecturers from universities and universities of applied sciences. In summary, I argue that dual study programs fulfill Hybridity Criterion I (see Section 3.3.4).
The ausbildungsintegrierende dual study programs are the clearest in- stances of programs that span the boundary between upper-secondary VET and HE (Hybridity Criterion II), as their students receive an initial VET certificate as well as a Bachelor degree. Furthermore, the ausbildungs- integrierende dual study programs served as the template for the other types of dual study programs, as the initial idea of dual studies was to combine these two kinds of certificates. In other words, the first type of dual study programs were of the ausbildungsintegrierendend type (Kramer, 1981: 20;
82 Interestingly, with regard to dual study programs, the BIBB focuses its research efforts on universities of applied sciences rather than on vocational academies (Interview DE5). This point will be discussed in the process analysis.
for details see Phase I below). But dual study programs also link the upper- and post-secondary levels in other relevant ways. For instance, the berufs- integrierende dual study programs offer an attractive option for apprentices who attained a higher education entrance certificate prior to IVET training and want to study while staying in their current job.
Hybrid Governance
Dual study programs tend to be established from the bottom up through regional initiatives by firms and, for example, a local university of applied sciences. In this sense, a mutual interest prevails, which facilitates the time- efficient coordination of the curricula and, generally speaking, enables rela- tively unproblematic relations (see Mucke and Schwiedrzik, 2000: 11–12). With regard to the cooperation between state and industry, “[t]his may be rated as a clear transposition of the ‘principle of consensus’ from the Dual System into the VA system” (Deißinger, 2000: 615, VA stands for vocational academy; see also Becker, 2006: 13). Thus, the phenomenon of dual study programs can be seen to support the argument that the dual principle has “extended” and, in this sense, moved up to the HE sector (see Sorge, 2007: 240; see also Drexel, 1993). However, later in this chapter I argue that this position to some extent does not take into account the crucial role employee organizations and trade unions traditionally play within the dual system of apprenticeship training.
The profile of a dual study program is largely determined by internal ne- gotiations and a cooperation agreement (Kooperationsvereinbarung) between the training firm and the organizational provider (Mucke and Schwiedrzik, 2000: 15; Becker, 2006: 4, 36). This implies that there is some flexibility in the specific forms of coordination between firms and educational institutes (e.g., loose or tight) (Harney, Hartz, and Weischet, 2001: 25; Reischl, 2008: 53). In the relationship between the firm and the educational institute, formal- ly the latter is the one that has the final say and can set the standards for the participating firms (Interview DE8; Akkreditierungsrat, 2010). The firms nevertheless have significant influence when it comes to setting up dual study programs as they can choose between different educational providers (Becker, 2006: 36). Then again, the vocational academies, universities of applied sciences, and universities that offer dual study programs are subject to the respective laws and accreditation processes in the Länder (see, e.g., Akkreditierungsrat, 2010).83
At the national level, the BIBB is active in building up a database on dual study programs (see also above), which hints at the boundary-spanning role of these programs at the nexus of VET and HE (given that the BIBB is tradi-
83 The particular status of an educational organization (e.g., public or private) will also determine which specific Länder regulation applies.
tionally an actor in the VET system). Moreover, the employer associations often support dual study programs through policy statements or through their actual involvement in a specific dual study program (e.g., BDA, 2011). However, only in the case of the ausbildungsintegrierende programs, in which an official VET certificate is awarded, is the involvement of the cham- bers formally required. Moreover, there is no federal standard with regard to the salaries of people enrolled in dual study programs (see discussion further below). Only in the case of the ausbildungsintegrierende dual study pro- grams is it decreed that the student should receive at least the same payment as an apprentice. However, the actual payment for students in dual study programs is sometimes higher, depending on specific local regulations or sometimes even individual negotiations between the student and the firm (e.g., Interview DE2).
The Hybrid Characteristics of Dual Study Programs
Table 35 in Appendix 11.5.2 provides an ideal-typical description of the location of the hybrid dual study programs in the German skill formation system. According to the criteria outlined in Section 3.3.4, the ausbildungs- integrierende, praxisintegrierende, and berufsintegrierende types of dual study programs qualify as hybrid organizational forms. They combine learn- ing processes from both VET and HE and they usually stress the equal im- portance of academic and firm-based learning (Hybridity Criterion I). The best example of the way in which these dual study programs can link upper- and post-secondary education is the double qualification awarded at the end of the ausbildungsintegrierende programs (Hybridity Criterion II). Finally, these programs are neither solely subject to traditional HE governance nor to traditional VET governance, but to a mix of both (Hybridity Criterion III). It should be noted that the berufsbegleitende programs do not qualify as hybrids due to a lack of curricular coordination between the firm and the educational organization. Thus, in the following, when I refer to dual study programs without further specification I refer to the three types of dual study programs that match the criteria for hybridity (i.e., ausbildungsintegrierend, praxisin- tegrierend, and berufsintegrierend). However, of these three types, I focus mostly on ausbildungsintegrierende and praxisintegrierende dual study programs, which specifically target high-school leavers and, with that, job starters (see Minks, Netz, and Völk, 2011: IV). That is, these two types are foundational (grundständige) programs (Mucke, 2010a), while berufs- integrierende programs are more part of the broad field of further education.
It is interesting to note that neither ausbildungsintegrierende nor praxis- integrierende dual study programs exist in Switzerland (Interview CH9). In 2010 Avenir Suisse – a market-liberal think tank founded in 2000 by interna- tionally active large Swiss firms – proposed the creation of dual study pro- grams in one of its policy reports (Schellenbauer, Walser, Lepordi et al.,
2010). However, this has been without results so far. In Austria, there is one ausbildungsintegrierender dual study program in nursing, which was found- ed in 2011 and is offered by a private provider. Furthermore, a small number of praxisintegrierende dual study programs can be found in Austria. While the German dual study options have recently attracted attention from the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber (WKO, 2010: 35), they are nevertheless very rare in Austria.84
In the following, I will explore the specific processes that led to the de- velopment of the dual study programs in the German case and how these hybrid programs were able to evolve in an institutional setting that tradition- ally draws a sharp line between VET and HE.