APROBACIÓN Y SOCIALIZACIÓN DEL MAPA DE PROCESOS

2.2.2.1. Time management: striking a “balance”. Having the capability to manage time effectively and maintain balance is regularly highlighted in the dual career literature as being an important factor for student-athletes during their time at university. Finding an optimal balance, however, has been suggested as being one of the most difficult demands for university student-athletes (Britse & Varga Karlsson, 2017), because they must continually negotiate the dual roles of student and athlete (Comeaux et al., 2011). Compared to non- athletic student counterparts, student-athletes will face an additional set of complex demands, stressors, and challenges that arise from their involvement in competitive sport (Broughton & Neyer, 2001), and may lead to an increased need to hold effective time management skills. On

a day to day basis at university, student-athletes may have to cope with moving among training, classes, gym, study groups, meetings, and other obligations (Read, 2017). Further to this, when student-athletes experience competition schedules spread over several months (i.e., team sports) or packed periods (i.e., individual sports), this could affect their capability to successfully time manage their sport and educational commitments (Aquilina, 2013; Debois et al., 2015). The time demands reported by student-athletes to fulfil training commitments has varied among studies. Research has reported that student-athletes spend around 10 hours a week training in their sport (Potuto & O’Hanlon, 2007), however, further studies have observed an even greater time demand of up to 40 hours of training a week (Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007).

Research suggests that the term ‘balance' will not typically imply that student-athletes are investing equal amounts of time into their sport and academic roles (Aquilina, 2013). How student-athletes manage their time or find what is perceived to be the right balance will

depend on personal characteristics, the type of sport, and exact choice of living (e.g., if an athlete does not live in close proximity to their university, this may lead to additional travelling and they may perceive that they have a difficult balance to maintain; Aquilina, 2013). With regards to sporting differences, a swimmers training, for example, may take place much earlier in the day than a tennis player’s training, and may have implications on how their day is structured. In sum, managing busy timetables within sport, academics, and social life is a challenging feat for student-athletes during their time at university, and may have the potential to become overwhelming and lead to stress (Etzel, 1989). The concept of balance may, however, be individual to each student-athlete.

2.2.2.2 Social support in managing the dual career at university. The availability of social support and understanding of an athletes’ support network is thought to be key to

achieving a well-balanced dual career (Henriksen & Mortensen, 2014), and may help to avoid burnout, build self-confidence, and enhance performance (Freeman, Coffee, & Rees, 2011). Whilst at university, student-athletes may need support from their coaches, club, and NGB to be able to manage their dual career, however, such support may not be readily available to them (e.g., Aquilina, 2013; Conzelmann & Nagel, 2003). When there is limited support during a dual career, research suggests that this may lead to athletes' premature retirement from elite sport (Aquilina, 2013; Wylleman & Reints, 2010). Limited support for the maintenance of a dual career has been suggested as being due to the negative perceptions of coaches and sports organisations that being a student will threaten the sporting development of their athletes (McGillivray & McIntosh, 2006).

Coaches are suggested to play an important support role in the dual career experience for student-athletes, and may often become athletes’ most frequent university contact (Bruening & Dixon, 2007). The support of coaches is suggested to go beyond supporting athletic development, because they may also provide guidance within other areas of life, such as helping students to organise their academic schedules (Skinner, 2004). Coaches may also support their athletes through making the training environment enjoyable, that may help to alleviate academic stress, and offer flexibility in training schedules to allow for educational commitments (Cosh & Tully, 2014). Additionally, coaches may also support their student- athletes through cultivating sources of emotional support within their athletic teams by improving team cohesion, that may be valuable in helping student-athletes to reduce the burden of combining sport and education (Cosh & Tully, 2014). Coaches, however, have been suggested as being mindful to providing proactive support to student-athletes (e.g., solving the problems of athletes) without them having the opportunity to seek help first, that may benefit long-term development (Brown et al., 2015; Collins & MacNamara, 2012).

Research suggests that when student-athletes are at university, they may have access to increased social support than at the school level, including that from performance lifestyle advisors (Brown et al., 2015; Aquilina & Henry, 2010). Although the exact type of support that these individuals provide to student-athletes during their time at university has not been well explored in the literature. In addition, student-athletes may develop partner relationships during their time at university, who they may receive important emotional support from when trying to balance busy academic and sporting schedules (Tekavc, Wylleman & Cecić Erpič, 2015).

2.2.2.3 Wellbeing and mental health in university student-athletes. Being a

university student whilst also being a high performing athlete at university has the potential to have negative implications on wellbeing and mental health. The wellbeing of student-athletes is a topic discussed amongst the North American literature (e.g., Gabbard & Halischak, 1993; Watson & Kissinger, 2007), but is limited with contributions from Europe. Research suggests that for student-athletes, sport can help to buffer academic stress, and can have positive implications on wellbeing (Kimball & Freysinger, 2003). For others, however, the intense training schedules, travelling, and the pressure to succeed can intensify stress, and when this is combined with academic demands, can lead to negative effects on mental health (e.g.,

Studies have suggested that for student-athletes participating in intercollegiate programmes, between 10 and 15% (2% higher than non-athletes) will experience

psychological issues severe enough to warrant counselling (Watson & Kissinger, 2007). More recent research has, however, reported even higher figures, with research suggesting that 23.7% of NCAA student-athletes present clinically relevant symptoms of depression (Wolanin, Hong, Marks, Panchoo, & Gross, 2016). Mental health problems that student- athletes are reported to be more susceptible to facing during their university careers in comparison to their non-athletic peers include; substance abuse (particularly alcohol), social anxiety, depression, and particularly within female populations, eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia (Gill, 2008; Maniar, Chamberlain, & Moore, 2005). Such clinical psychological issues have the potential to have harmful consequences to athletes’ educational and sporting endeavours (Hosick, 2005). Despite the potential for these issues to occur, research has asserted that the population of student-athletes are less likely to seek out professional help than non-athletes (Moulton, Molstad, & Turner, 1997). The reasons for limited help-seeking behaviours may include a fear of appearing weak, losing training time, losing the respect of peers and coaches, and the fear of being viewed as needing psychological assistance (Brooks & Bull, 1999). Based on these results, regular monitoring of student-athlete wellbeing via one-to-one meetings and psychometric measures may be important during university. In addition, Hoisick (2005) suggests that licensed psychologists can enhance the medical care for student-athletes by providing mental health screenings, prevention education, and providing counselling on challenges and stresses related to being a student-athlete.

2.2.2.4 Identity fluctuations during the university dual career. An area that has received considerable attention within the dual career literature is the development of identity for student-athletes, and how they alternate between their athlete and student roles during their time at university. The term student-athlete proposes that individuals must develop multiple identities, encompassing different roles within each. Possessing a strong athletic identity has been found to have a positive influence on sports achievements (Danish et al., 1993; Werthner & Orlick, 1986), exercise adherence, and athletic performance (Brewer et al., 1993). The literature, however, appears to be divided on whether holding a strong athletic identity when also a student at university has a positive or negative effect on athletes’ education. US studies have indicated that university student-athletes with a strong athletic identity are still successful in their academic pursuits (e.g., Paule & Gilson, 2010; Potuto & Hanlon, 2007; Richards & Aries, 1999). Conversely, other studies have indicated that when student-athletes’ identify more highly with their athletic role, they may experience more challenges within their

university education (e.g., Adler & Adler, 1991; Miller & Kerr, 2002; Miller, Melnick, Barnes, Farrell, & Sabo, 2005; Singer, 2008).

As student-athletes progress through their time at university, they may experience gradual changes within their identity (Knott, 2016; Lally & Kerr, 2005; Miller & Kerr, 2002; 2003). When student-athletes move towards the end of their university degree, their student identity may gain increasing importance, and it is thought that aiding and nurturing this development in student identity can help in endorsing more positive outcomes for student- athletes (e.g., greater ability to make career decisions; Finch, 2009; Miller & Kerr, 2002, 2003). This change in identity has also been suggested as being due to the perception that student-athletes’ athletic careers were coming to an end, and there was no reward to be gained by continuing to put the athlete role first (Knott, 2016; Lally & Kerr, 2005).

The influence that the environment and certain individuals within it can have on student- athletes’ identities has also been a topic of discussion in the literature (Adler & Adler, 1991). Coaches were identified as having a strong influence on student-athletes’ preference to their athlete role over their student role (Marx, Huifmon, & Doyle, 2008; Mirabile & Witte, 2013; Singer, 2008). Further individuals who may also contribute to the importance of student and athlete identities include parents (Marx et al., 2008), teammates (Miller & Kerr, 2003), fans, professors, and other students (Adler & Adler, 1991). Professors and other students in the university may have adverse impressions of student-athletes, and hold the perception that they do not put enough effort into their education, and that they receive special attention (Adler & Adler, 1991). This negativity may lead some student-athletes seeking support from their teammates during their time at university, and may lead to strengthening athletes’ identities (Adler & Adler, 1991; Singer, 2008).