CAPACITACIÓN EN LA METODOLOGÍA DE PROCEDIMIENTO E

models, and highlighted those that will be used in the current thesis. Wylleman and colleagues (2013) model best demonstrates the period of the athletic career that the current thesis is focusing on, and is represented by the boxed area in figure 2.3. Stambulova’s (2003) model can then be used to explore the pathways within Wylleman and colleagues (2013) model (into and out of university) in a greater level of depth. Following the review of models, empirical research on dual careers was discussed, focusing on the whole pathway though university, including the transition into university, experiences during, and the transition out of university.

Due to the many gaps present within the dual career literature, summarised below, and the increasing population of elite-level student-athletes (e.g., MacNamara & Collins, 2010; Reints & Wylleman, 2009; Ryba et al., 2015), more research is required to gain a greater understanding of the university experience for this population. Accordingly, the overall purpose of this thesis was to examine the whole pathway through university for student- athletes from athletes’ and stakeholders’ perspectives. This thesis will address this purpose by examining:

(1) examine athletes’ and stakeholders’ experiences of the transition into university for student-athletes (Part A);

(2) examine student-athletes’ perspectives of their experiences during university (Part A, B, and C);

(3) examine athletes’ and stakeholders’ experiences of the transition out of university for student-athletes (Part C);

(4) expand knowledge available on student-athlete experiences within a UK context (Part A, B, and C).

To add to the existing knowledge on dual careers, answer the research questions, and help achieve the overall purpose of this thesis, 3 parts of one overall study have been devised. Parts A, B, and C of the current thesis focus on the transition into university, experience during university, and the transition out of university for student-athletes, respectively. Knowledge on dual careers will be advanced by the three parts of this thesis as they assess the perspectives, using novel modes of investigation (e.g., longitudinal method) and analysis (e.g.,

autoethnographic, narrative) of various sources who have an understanding of university student-athlete experiences. By doing do, this will provide knowledge of factors associated

Figure 2.3. A holistic athletic career development perspective, including stages and transitions at the athletic, psychological, psychosocial, academic/vocational and financial level

(Wylleman, De Knop & Reints, 2013). The box (added by the author) highlights the period of exploration of this PhD thesis.

with the university experience for student-athletes that we do not currently have an understanding of from previous research.

Various sources have contributed to the current thesis who have knowledge of the factors associated with the university dual career from both a personal perspective (i.e., student-athletes, including autoethnographic accounts) and a supportive role (e.g., head coaches, managerial figures, performance lifestyle advisors, academic staff). At present, a large amount of the literature on dual careers focuses on the perceptions of athletes (e.g., Aquilina, 2013). Although athlete perspectives are key to understanding experience,

stakeholders who interact with and co-ordinate the support of student-athletes, such as head coaches, performance lifestyle advisors and managerial figures may be able to provide additional knowledge we do not already know. Previous research has suggested that future research would benefit from gaining the perspectives of academic staff, because although we

AGE 10 15 20 25 30 35

Psychological Level

Psychosocial Level

Parents Peers Partner - Coach Family

Siblings Coach Support Staff - Teammates (Coach)

Peers Parents Students Peers

(Semi-) Professional career Primary Secondary Higher

Education Education Education (Semi-) Professional career Childhood Puberty Adolescence

Initiation Development Mastery Discontinuation Athletic Level Financial Level Academic/ Vocational Level

Family Family NGB/NOC/Government Family

do not yet know their specific roles, they are suggested to play a role in shaping the development of student-athletes (Brown et al., 2015).

Methodologically, limited athletic career research has employed a narrative and autoethnographic approach (Stambulova & Ryba, 2014). One such study comes from Carless and Douglas (2009), that narratively explores the career and retirement experiences of

professional golfers. To further advance knowledge and methods of presenting data in the area of dual careers, part B of the current thesis has been devised with a narrative methodology to present the dual career stories of university student-athletes. This style of writing may allow the reader to connect on a more personal level with the data presented (Phoenix & Smith, 2011). Additionally, there are limited studies within dual career research that have used an autoethnographic method. This method may provide a deeper insight into the influences, and the meaning of personal experiences (Pace, 2012), that the reader may be able to resonate more closely with. Autoethnographic writing is included within all three parts of the current thesis and aligns to the research aims. In addition, there are a limited number of longitudinal studies in dual career research (Stambulova & Ryba, 2014), with researchers favouring a retrospective approach to view dual career development across the whole athletic career (e.g., Debois et al., 2015; Tekavc et al., 2015). The majority of athlete career research using this method has explored the athletic retirement process (e.g., Torregrossa et al., 2015), opposed to phases within the athletic career. Using a longitudinal approach in part B of the thesis may have methodological advantages, because it avoids the limitations of retrospective

interviewing, that may result in memory distortion and retrospective recall bias having an effect on the validity of the data presented (Levine & Safer, 2002). Longitudinal methodology also allows changes to be examined over time (Holland, Thomson, & Henderson, 2006).

Aim one of the thesis was to examine athletes’ and stakeholders’ experiences of the transition into university for student-athletes. As highlighted in the literature review and the above model, the coinciding transitions during the move to university (Wylleman et al. 2013), makes this period particularly important to examine, because there may be stress in a number of life areas. At present, there is limited research that has explored the pre-transition

perceptions of student-athletes, and whether these perceptions marry to actual experiences when they have arrived. In addition, there has been limited research that has examined the decisions that student-athletes make about moving into university, and the factors that

influence these decisions. Previous research has suggested student-athletes may have to make difficult decisions within their dual careers (e.g., Aquilina, 2009). Part A has been devised to expand on this gap and explores the phase before student-athletes transition into university.

Understanding this pre-transition process in greater depth may allow stakeholders, such as university athlete support staff and academic staff, to provide student-athletes with the support and advice required during this period to allow for a successful adjustment to university.

In addition, studies exploring the transition into university have been vague in describing which time point of the transition they are exploring when student-athletes have entered university (e.g., Brown et al., 2015). Part A focuses on the specific challenges and demands that student-athletes will be confronted with in approximately the first six weeks of being at university. The type of support (e.g., tangible, emotional) that student-athletes need just after transitioning into university may be different during other phases of the transition (e.g., several months following transition), and this is yet to be explored in depth in the literature. Providing student-athletes with the correct support during this period may be important to avoid drop out, of which they are at an increased risk of (Bengtsson & Johnson, 2012)

Aim two of the thesis was to examine student-athletes’ perspectives of their experiences during university. The literature review highlighted that student-athletes experience a number of stressful situations whilst at university, such as managing busy timetables (e.g., Tekavc et al., 2015) and fluctuations in their identity (e.g., Lally & Kerr, 2005), that can lead to potential mental health issues (e.g., Humphrey et al., 2000). Research

has explored the factors that facilitated or constrained dual career development throughout the whole athletic career (e.g., Debois et al., 2015), however, no studies have had an exclusive focus on the experiences of student-athletes as they move through their university careers. By doing so, it may be possible to assess the changes that occur over time (e.g., across each year of study), the processes associated with these changes (Holland et al., 2004), and the

differences among student-athlete experiences. Part B was devised to explore the experiences of student-athletes in real-time as they move from the start to the end of their university degree. Exploring this process in more detail may enable stakeholders to have an understanding of how to support student-athletes who have divergent experiences at university, and the types of support they may require within certain periods.

Aim three of the thesis was to examine athletes’ and stakeholders’ experiences of the transition out of university for student-athletes. The literature review demonstrates the limited research on the transition out of university for student-athletes, and particularly outside of the US. For US student-athletes, the options to continue high level sport following university are limited (Harrison & Lawrence, 2003), however, this may not be comparable to other nations, such as the UK, where a professional club structure exists. This may lead to increased

opportunities to continue competing in high level sport post-university. The factors associated with the transition and necessary support that student-athletes require may differ. Part C of the thesis was devised to expand on this gap in the literature and explore the perceptions of

student-athletes in both the pre-and post-transition phase, support provided, the pathways that student-athletes take when they transition out of university, and reasoning behind their

decisions. This knowledge may enable stakeholders to have an effective understanding of how they could support student-athletes in preparing (e.g., career support) and adapting to the transition (e.g., emotional support). This knowledge may also help to optimise the potential of student-athletes following the direction that they take when they leave university (e.g., into full-time sport or into a vocational career).

Finally, aim four of the thesis is to expand knowledge available on student-athlete experiences within a UK context. “The EU Guidelines on Dual Careers of Athletes” (2012) provides recommended policy actions in support of dual careers in high-performance sport, and encourages national stakeholders to explore the factors associated with dual careers within their respective cultures. Member states across Europe have set up of a range of initiatives to support the dual career (Aquilina & Henry, 2010), with research highlighting that athletes will profit from different dual career pathways, opportunities, and stakeholder attitudes based on the national context (Küttel, Christensen, Zysko, & Hansen, 2017). Dual career systems across Europe range from ‘State-Centric’ systems that are backed by legislation (e.g., Spain, France), to ‘Laissez-faire’ systems where no formal structures exist (e.g., Italy, Austria; Aquilina & Henry, 2010). In the UK, a system operates whereby the athletic talent development needs of athletes are placed in the hands of institutions such as universities. UK universities place high importance on supporting student-athletes, that is highlighted in the review of UK university sport scholarship programmes (currently 95 programmes in the UK; see Appendix A). Despite the uniqueness of the UK context, at present, there is limited research in dual careers within UK populations. Additionally, comparative to the American context where currently a large proportion of the student-athlete literature is situated, athletes in the UK will typically develop via a club-based system external to their education (Brennan & Bleakley, 1997). UK athletes may not experience a link between their sport and educational environment that is widely viewed in the US until they enter university (McCormack & Walseth, 2013). UK student- athletes may experience additional factors during their university dual careers that we are not yet aware of in the literature. In addition, figures highlighted on the British Universities & Colleges Sport (BUCS) website states that during both the 2012 London Olympic Games and the 2016 Rio Olympic Games, the majority of Team Great Britain were either current student-

athletes or had been through the higher education system (British Universities & Colleges Sport, 2012, 2016). During the London Olympic Games in 2012, several sports had a strong student-athlete representation, including; modern pentathlon (100%), women’s water polo (100%), rowing (90%), field hockey (87.5%), athletics (79.5%), and swimming (54%). Many of these Olympic-level student-athletes also regularly represented their universities within the British University and Colleges leagues and events (British Universities & Colleges Sport, 2012). These figures further demonstrate the large roles that student-athletes play in the elite sport system, and the importance of examining their experiences to gain a greater

Chapter Three