Areal Thresholds and Budgetary Implications of the Greening Architecture

During the republic male citizens could vote on legis-lation and in the election of government officials. Vot-ing was done in popular assemblies, of which every citizen was a member, and voting was oral and public until 139 BC, when secret ballots were introduced.

There were four assemblies in the republic, all held outdoors. Three were known by the plural noun comitia (meetings of all citizens—plebeians and patri-cians), a comitium being a place of assembly. These were the comitia curiata, comitia centuriata and comitia tributa. The concilium plebis was for plebeians only.

The assemblies met only to vote, not to discuss or initiate action. Legislation was initiated by a magis-trate and discussed by the Senate, and was taken to

one of the assemblies only for a vote. The senators therefore controlled the nature of the legislation that reached the assemblies. Laws or motions passed by the comitia were known as leges (sing. lex), and those by the concilium plebis were called plebiscita (sing. plebisci-tum) (decrees of the plebeians). There was no oppor-tunity for discussion during the assemblies, but very often informal public discussions were held—contiones (sing. contio)—before a vote was taken, which male cit-izens, women, slaves and foreigners could attend.

By the end of the republic many Roman citizens did not live in or near Rome and so would have had difficulty exercising their right to vote. The comitia continued in existence to the 3rd century but had lost their functions by the late 1st century.

COMITIA CURIATA

Originally the Roman people were divided into 30 curiae (wards), ten to each of the three original tribes. They were the basis of the political and mili-tary organization, and the people voted in their own curiae. Little is known of this comitia, from which the centuriate assembly developed, and it had no legisla-tive powers. By the late republic the comitia curiata met only for formal purposes, and conferred imperium on consuls and praetors.

COMITIA CENTURIATA

This assembly could be summoned only by a magis-trate with imperium. It met in the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) at Rome, as it used to be a military assembly. Voters were divided into voting units called centuries (373 in all, of which 18 were for equestrians).

The centuries were based on men’s age and their prop-erty values, originally a means of organizing military forces. The poor had fewer votes; most of the power was with the rich. This assembly decided between war and peace and elected higher magistrates. It also acted as a court of appeal against the death sentence in crim-inal cases. In the early republic it was the main legisla-tive and judicial body, but its functions declined.

COMITIA TRIBUTA

The assembly of the tribes (comitia tributa) met in the Forum at Rome, and the voters were divided

into their 35 tribes. It could be summoned by con-suls, praetors or tribunes. It elected lesser magis-trates and acted as a court of appeal in cases not involving capital punishment. This assembly was also a legislative body and voted on bills put before it by the presiding magistrate.

CONCILIUM PLEBIS

The Forum at Rome was the meeting place for this assembly, which was restricted to plebeians, divided into their 35 tribes. It may have elected tribunes and plebeian aediles. After 287 BC its resolutions (plebiscita) were binding on all citizens.

Senate

REPUBLICAN ROME

The senatus populusque Romanus (SPQR) was the Senate and the People of Rome. The Senate was a group of unelected men called senators, restricted to patricians in the early republic but later extended to plebeians. In the middle and late republic a man was automatically admitted to the Senate for life once he had been elected by the comitia or concilium to his first magistracy. He was expelled only if found guilty of misconduct. There were originally 100 members, which was increased to 300, then to 600 in 80 BC, and to 900 under Julius Caesar.

The Senate was formally a body that advised mag-istrates, but from the 3rd century BCit increased its influence and power, particularly through the crisis of the Second Punic War. Among other work, it pre-pared legislation to put before the assemblies, admin-istered finances, dealt with foreign relations and supervised state religion. In the 2nd and 1st centuries

BCthe Senate was the virtual government of Rome, having great influence and control over the assem-blies and magistrates. It could not make laws but issued decrees (known as decreta or senatus consulta).

The senatus consultum ultimum (final decree of the Sen-ate) was a final resort for crushing political threats, last employed in 40 BC. It authorized magistrates to employ every means possible to restore order.

Senators had to have a private income as they received no payment. During the republic, the most

important activity in adult life for the small group of families who constituted the senatorial class was the pursuit of political power for themselves, their fam-ily and friends. A boy’s rhetorical education and a young man’s activities in the law courts were prepa-rations for a political career. Men would try to win election to their first magistracy in their early 30s.

Friendships, marriages and even divorces were often a matter of political convenience. A politician was expected to greet everyone warmly and by name, and was assisted by a slave called a nomenclator whose duty it was to memorize names and identify people.

Only a small percentage of the population was deeply involved in politics. Rivalry was intense and the political campaigns were bitter. Because elections were held every year, the process of campaigning was virtually unending. Political slogans were painted on walls of buildings at Pompeii and presumably in other cities. Campaigns were also expensive, with bribery (ambitus) and corruption commonplace.

Even if not running for office, a man was expected to campaign for family and friends.

Among the senators was an exclusive group of nobiles (well known) whose ancestors (patrician or plebeian) had held a curule magistracy (later a

con-sulship only). Up to the 1st century BCfew men out-side these families reached consular rank. Political alliances or factions (factiones) were common within these families, and various methods were used to undermine opposition factions. A novus homo (new man) was the first man in a family (such as Cicero) to hold a curule magistracy, especially a consulship.

These new men were nevertheless usually from wealthy families. In the empire the term nobiles was applied to the descendants of republican consuls.

After the Gracchi, the politicians were divided into two opposing groups. The populares (on the side of the people) were reformers who worked through the people rather than the Senate. Their political opponents called themselves the optimates (best class) and were the larger and conservative part of the Senate.

Meetings of the Senate were attended by sena-tors, magistrates and the flamen dialis (see chapter 7) only, although the public could gather by the open doors in the vestibule. Meetings were held mainly in the Curia (senate house, also called the Curia Hos-tilia) in the northwest corner of the Forum, but they could also take place in any public consecrated place within 1.6 km (one mile) of Rome. Senators sat on benches (subselli) down the long sides of the building in no fixed order.

EMPIRE

The Senate granted increasing powers to the emperor Augustus, and in turn its own power was greatly curtailed under successive emperors, although no emperor attempted to abolish it. By Augustus’ reign, there were over 1,000 senators. He reduced that number to about 600 and introduced a property qualification of 1 million sesterces for entry. A senatorial career was not necessarily safe under some emperors, and many members of the old senatorial families retired from politics, were exe-cuted or committed suicide. The Senate began to be filled by men from upper-class families from the provinces.

Under the empire the Senate retained some provinces, controlled the aerarium (state treasury), and became a legislative body, its senatus consulta having the force of law. Nevertheless, its power gradually diminished. In the later empire the num-1.25 Reverse of an as of Nero showing Victory with a

shield inscribed SPQR and SC (senatus consulto, by decree of the Senate). (Courtesy of Somerset County Museums Service)

ber of senators increased, and Constantine also introduced a Senate in Constantinople, which in 359 was made equal to that of Rome. By c.384 each Sen-ate had about 2,000 members, and continued as leg-islative bodies. Senators at Rome tended to be wealthier and more conservative than those at Con-stantinople. The Roman Senate was last mentioned in 603.

Magistrates

REPUBLIC

In the republic magistrates were the elected govern-ment officials of Rome and had executive, judicial,

legislative, diplomatic, military and even religious functions. The original magistrates were the two consuls (first called praetors). As Rome expanded, more magistrates were needed, and the consuls lost some of their original functions to other magistrates.

Each magistracy was filled by at least two officials to prevent power being held by one person. Magis-trates holding the same office were collegae (col-leagues). Not regarded as true magistracies were tribune of the people, censor, dictator and master of the horse. The term of office for magistrates was one year, and a senator would expect to be elected to at least two or three magistracies during his lifetime. A magistrate could hold other offices simultaneously, such as a priesthood.

Before starting on a political career, young men were expected to have spent at least 10 years in a military post (military tribune or legate—see chap-ter 2) or sometimes in a legal career in the courts.

Magistracies were then sought, usually in a particu-lar order—the cursus honorum (course of honors).

This was fixed by law in 180 BC, although not every-one followed the normal career pattern—for exam-ple, Marius and Pompey. In the cursus honorum, the first political office was that of quaestor, then aedile (not obligatory), praetor, consul, and finally censor.

To gain a magistracy suo anno (in one’s year) meant at the earliest possible age. The minimum interval between magistracies was normally two years. The republican senatorial career was based largely at Rome, interrupted by spells of provincial adminis-tration.

Curule magistrates (praetors, consuls, censors and curule aediles) had the right to sit on a special chair (sella curulis) as a symbol of their office. The chair (of Etruscan origin) was an ivory folding stool.

EMPIRE

During the early empire the cursus honorum was extended. The magistracies of quaestor, aedile, prae-tor and consul were retained, but in between these offices there were numerous other posts. The politi-cal role of senators diminished, and their careers were largely administrative and outside Rome, with interruptions for holding magistracies at Rome.

Senior posts were filled by senators and by equites, often from the provinces.

1.26 The Senate House or Curia at Rome, which was rebuilt in AD283.

A senatorial career under the empire often started in the vigintivirate (a board of 20 minor mag-istrates) and could then proceed to the post of senior tribune (tribunus laticlavius) as a senator designate, then quaestor, praetor, commander of a legion (lega-tus legionis), governor of a praetorian (senatorial) province (proconsul provinciae), governor of an impe-rial province (legatus Augusti pro praetore) and finally governor of a consular (senatorial) province (procon-sul provinciae).

The power held by a magistrate was either imperium or potestas. Imperium was supreme author-ity, involving command in war and interpretation and execution of the law, including the passing of the death sentence. Imperium was held by consuls, prae-tors, dictators (who had the imperium of two consuls) and the master of the horse. Potestas was a general form of power held by all magistrates to enforce the law of their office.

APPARITORES

Apparitores were minor public servants, in particular scribes, messengers and lictors, who attended magis-trates. They received a salary from the state and were generally freedmen or sons of freedmen.

FASCES

The fasces was originally a double-headed ax enclosed in a bundle of rods to symbolize the king’s right to scourge and execute. In the republic only dictators were allowed to carry axes in Rome, and so the fasces was normally a bundle of rods carried on the left shoulders of the lictors (lictores). Lictors attended magistrates with imperium and walked in front in a single file. Consuls were attended by 12 lictors each, praetors by 6 lictors each when outside Italy at the head of an army, and a dictator by 24 lic-tors. The fasces were a symbol of the magistrate’s authority.

QUAESTORS

Quaestors were magistrates elected for one year by the comitia tributa at the minimum age of 27 (increased to 30 in the 1st century BC). Quaestors were financial and administrative officials who

main-tained public records, administered the treasury (aerarium), acted as paymasters accompanying gen-erals on campaigns and were financial secretaries to governors. The number of quaestors increased as the empire grew, although their functions dimin-ished. The office of quaestor remained the qualify-ing magistracy for entry to the Senate.

AEDILES

At Rome there were originally two plebeian magis-trates, named from the aedes or temple of Ceres, which they administered. Their function soon was extended to public buildings and archives (of the plebiscita and senatus consulta). From 367 BCtwo curule aediles were elected from the patricians. The plebeian and curule aediles had similar functions at Rome; they were in charge of the maintenance and repair of pub-lic buildings (such as temples, roads and aqueducts), of markets (especially weights and measures), of the annona (to the time of Julius Caesar), and of public games and festivals (to the time of Augustus, when games were transferred to praetors). Aediles were elected for one year by the comitia tributa. The office was not an essential part of the cursus honorum, but for the wealthy there were plenty of opportunities for publicity and vote-catching, particularly in the stag-ing of expensive games. Under the empire aediles formed part of the administration of local authorities.

PRAETORS

“Praetor” was the name originally given to the mag-istrates who replaced the king. In 366 BCthe praetor urbanus (city praetor) was introduced, who was almost exclusively concerned with the administra-tion of law at Rome. The praetor, who had originally held military command, was the supreme civil judge.

By the middle republic the praetors’ powers were restricted to law and justice, and the consuls assumed the military role. By 241 BCa second prae-tor (praeprae-tor peregrinus—concerning foreigners) was established to deal with legal cases in which one or both parties were foreigners. As Rome acquired more territory overseas, the number of praetors increased, and there were eight by 80 BC.

Praetors issued annual edicts that were an impor-tant source of Roman law. They were elected for one

year by the comitia centuriata, usually around the age of 40. Under the empire the functions of praetors increased, and included responsibility for games and festivals. Propraetors (literally, “in place of prae-tors”) were chosen for military command as gover-nors of some senatorial provinces.

CONSULS

When the monarchy was abolished in 509 BC, the king was replaced by two annually elected magis-trates, originally called praetors and later consuls (consules). They assumed many of the duties of the king but could not themselves exercise supreme power, because they had to share power and only served for one year. The consuls were always patri-cian until 367 BC, when plebeians could stand for office. Their minimum age was 36 (increased to 42 in the 1st century BC).

Consuls were elected primarily as commanders of military forces. They presided over meetings of the Senate and implemented its decisions. They were elected by the comitia centuriata (although pro-posed by the Senate). In the republic consuls entered office on 15 March, and after 153 BCon 1 January.

Consules ordinarii entered office at the beginning of the year and gave their name to the year, while con-sules suffecti were appointed later in the year, possibly to succeed a consul who was unable to complete his term of office.

In the empire consuls lost all responsibility for military campaigns, and the consulship became a largely honorary position. It was held for only two to four months, which increased the number of ex-con-suls available for administrative posts. The emperors often proposed consuls or held the office them-selves, and the age limit was disregarded. The con-sulship survived to 534 in the western empire.

PLEBEIAN TRIBUNES (TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE)

The tribunate had been established early in Rome’s history to protect the plebeians from the patricians, when the patricians held all public offices. By 449 BC

there were 10 tribunes (tribuni plebis). They were responsible directly to the concilium plebis, and could summon meetings of this assembly. Tribunes became

indistinguishable from other magistrates but did not hold imperium. By the 2nd century BCthe tribunate became an entry qualification to the Senate. Tribunes were elected from the plebeians for one year. Pro-vided they did so in person, they had the unique power of veto (intercessio) against any action or plan of action within the city of Rome, including elections of magistrates, laws and decrees of the Senate, and actions of magistrates. Under the empire the tri-bunes lost all importance, and the emperor adopted tribunician power (tribunicia potestas), although the office remained to the 5th century.

CENSORS

Every five years two censors were elected by the comi-tia centuriata to hold office for 18 months. They were responsible for taking censuses of property, keeping a register of all citizens and assigning them to their centuries. They controlled public morals and could expel senators. They prepared lists of members of the Senate and had the right to take judicial proceedings against citizens suppressing information about their property. They also supervised the leasing of public land, decided on new construction and awarded gov-ernment contracts. The censor was the highest posi-tion of magistrate in the middle and late republic, holding extensive powers, which were reduced by the legislation of Sulla. In the empire the role of censor tended to be adopted by the emperor.

DICTATOR

A dictator (also known as magister populi, master of the infantry—populus meaning those eligible to be soldiers) was appointed by the consul on the Senate’s proposal for a maximum of six months (the length of the campaigning season) in emergencies, and had supreme military and judicial authority, although other magistrates remained in office. The dictator appointed a master of horse (magister equitum) as his assistant. After Caesar’s murder in 44 BC, the dicta-torship was abolished.

PROMAGISTRATES

Prorogation (prorogatio)—the extension of the imperium of a consul or praetor—was introduced in

326 BCto enable the consul to complete a military campaign as proconsul (literally, “in place of a con-sul”). Sometimes the promagistracy was extended to praetors who became propraetors. It became an important part of the administrative system, as there were otherwise not enough men to deal with the

326 BCto enable the consul to complete a military campaign as proconsul (literally, “in place of a con-sul”). Sometimes the promagistracy was extended to praetors who became propraetors. It became an important part of the administrative system, as there were otherwise not enough men to deal with the