EFA n-Fixing Crops

Some of the prominent people of the Roman world are described here. See also emperors (below) and literary authors (chapter 6). The following list is

selective; through Rome’s history there were over one billion Romans.

Aëtius Flavius Aëtius. Born at Durostorum. Died 454. Pursued a military career, being master of the soldiers from 430 to 454. He was virtually in charge of the west during Valentinian III’s reign. He

partic-Western Empire Eastern Empire

364–375 Valentinian I 364–378 Valens

375–383 Gratian 365–366 Procopius

379–395 Theodosius I 375–392 Valentinian II

383–388 Magnus Maximus 387–388 Flavius Victor 392–394 Eugenius

395–423 Honorius 395–408 Arcadius

407–411 Constantine III 408–450 Theodosius II

409–411 Maximus 409–410 Priscus Attalus 411–413 Jovinus 412–413 Sebastianus 414–415 Priscus Attalus 421 Constantius III 423–425 Johannes

425–455 Valentinian III 450–457 Marcian

455 Petronius Maximus 455–456 Avitus

457–461 Majorian 457–474 Leo I

461–465 Libius Severus 467–472 Anthemius

472 Olybrius

473 Glycerius 473–474 Leo II

473–475 Julius Nepos 474–491 Zeno

475–476 Romulus Augustulus 475–476 Basiliscus

476 Marcus

491–518 Anastasius

518–527 Justin

527–565 Justinian

Barbarian Kings of Italy 476–493 Odo(v)acer 493–526 Theoderic 526–534 Athalaric 534–536 Theodahad

ularly controlled barbarian invasions, and defeated the Visigoths and Burgundians in Gaul. Later he called on the Visigoths to defeat his old allies, the Huns, under Attila in 451. The Huns invaded Italy in 452, and Aëtius was assassinated by order of Valentinian III on 21 September 454.

Agricola Gnaeus Julius Agricola. 40–93. Born at Fréjus. A biography about Agricola was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. Agricola fol-lowed a military career, including governor of Aqui-tania, consul for part of 77, and governor of Britain from late 77 or 78 to 85. He was victorious at the battle of Mons Graupius in Scotland in 85, after which he was recalled to Rome and received no other command.

Agrippa Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. 64–12 BC. Wives: Attica, Marcella, Julia (Augustus’ daughter, married 21 BC). Children: Vipsania Agrippina (by Attica; married Tiberius), Gaius and Lucius Caesar (died AD2 and 4, respectively), Agrippina the Elder, Julia and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (born after Agrippa’s death, died AD 14) (all by Julia).

Agrippa was a lifelong supporter of Augustus, and was involved in many of his campaigns. He defeated Sextus Pompey in 36 BCand took part in the battle of Actium. He subsequently held numerous public offices and undertook an extensive building program in Rome.

Agrippina the Elder c.14 BC–AD 33. Parents:

Agrippa and Julia. Husband: Germanicus (died AD

19). Children: nine, including Agrippina the Younger, Caligula (emperor) and Drusilla. She was exiled to the island of Pandateria in 29, where she starved herself to death.

Agrippina the Younger Julia Agrippina. 15–59.

Parents: Agrippina the Elder and Germanicus. Hus-bands: Domitius Ahenobarbus (married 28), Sal-lustius Passienus Crispus, Claudius (married 48, emperor). Son: Nero (by Domitius Ahenobarbus;

emperor). Agrippina was exiled in 39 and was recalled in 49. She was very influential during the reigns of Claudius and Nero. She apparently poi-soned Claudius, and was herself murdered at Baiae by order of Nero.

Antinous From Claudiopolis, Bithynia, Antinous died by drowning in the Nile in 130. He was a youth of great beauty and a favorite of Hadrian, who founded the city of Antinoopolis on the Nile and erected temples and statues in his memory.

Antonia 36 BC–AD 37. Parents: Mark Antony and Octavia. Husband: Drusus (died 9 BC). Children:

many, including Germanicus and Claudius (emperor).

She became very influential during Tiberius’ reign and inherited great wealth from her father.

Antony, Mark Marcus Antonius, c.83–30 BC. He followed a military career, served under Caesar in Gaul and assumed power at Rome with Lepidus after Caesar’s assassination. His leadership was chal-lenged by Octavian, who sided with the Senate in opposition to Antony. Civil war ensued and Antony was defeated at Mutina in 43 BC, but an alliance (Sec-ond Triumvirate) was formed between Lepidus, Octavian and Antony. In 42 BCthe Republican oppo-sition was defeated at Philippi, and Antony remained in the East. He entered into a political and personal alliance with Cleopatra. A split between him and Octavian developed, and he was defeated at Actium in 31 BC. He committed suicide at Alexandria.

Arbitio Flavius Arbitio, 4th-century soldier who rose to the rank of master of cavalry (c.351–361). He was consul in 355.

Arbogast Died September 394. Frankish born and master of the soldiers. He was a general at the court of Gratian, played a leading part in Theodosius’

defeat of Maximus, and was commander in chief (388) to Valentinian II, with whom he quarrelled.

After Valentinian’s death, he declared Eugenius as emperor, and with Nichomachus Flavianus he revived pagan cults. His army was defeated by Theodosius I and he committed suicide.

Balbus Lucius Cornelius Balbus. 1st century BC, from Cadiz. Balbus gained Roman citizenship in 72

BC through Pompey’s influence, and assumed a Roman name. He moved to Rome and became a man of considerable importance. In the civil war his allegiance was to Caesar and then to Octavian. In 40

BChe became Rome’s first foreign-born consul.

Belisarius Wife: Antonina (a former actress). Belis-arius was an outstanding general of the emperor Jus-tinian. His greatest victories were the recovery of Africa from the Vandals in 533 and of Italy from the Ostrogoths in 540. In 563 he was accused of a con-spiracy and died in 565, possibly ending his life as a beggar in the streets of Constantinople.

Brutus Marcus Junius Brutus. c.85–42 BC. In the civil wars he fought with Pompey against Caesar, but was pardoned by Caesar and was appointed praetor in 44 BC. With Cassius he led the Republican resis-tance against Caesar and was his prime assassin. He was forced to leave Italy, was defeated at Philippi in 42 BCand committed suicide.

Burrus Afranius Burrus. Died 62. He was of an equestrian family from Vaison. In 51 he became praetorian prefect. He and Seneca acted as advisors to Nero and helped weaken Agrippina the Younger’s position. Burrus’ death may have been due to poisoning.

Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar. Born 12 July 100 BC. Wife: Calpurnia. He was associated with the populares.

A senator before 70 BC, he held various public offices and achieved a reputation as a military leader, initially in Spain. He made an informal alliance in 60 BCwith Crassus and Pompey (First Triumvirate). As proconsul of Gaul and Illyricum, he undertook the conquest of the rest of Gaul. He was declared a public enemy by the Senate, and started a civil war by crossing the Rubicon with his army from his province to Italy. He defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in 48 BCand became dictator at Rome. He wrote the famous epigram veni, vidi, vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) after the battle of Zela in Asia Minor against Pharnaces, son of Mithridates. Caesar was also a renowned orator and author. He was assassinated on 15 (Ides) March 44 BC. Camillus Marcus Furius Camillus. 5th–4th cen-turies BC. He was a statesman and general whose deeds are obscured by legend. He captured Veii in 396 BC, and in 391 BCwas exiled. After the sack of Rome in 390 BC, he was recalled as dictator and allegedly conquered the Gauls, Volsci and Aequi.

He was five times dictator in the period from 390 to 367 BC.

Cassius Gaius Cassius Longinus. He was quaestor of Crassus in Syria in 53 BCand saved some of the forces at Carrhae. Cassius supported Pompey in the civil war but was pardoned by Caesar. He was praetor peregrinus in 44 BCand a leading conspirator in Cae-sar’s assassination. He left Italy and joined Brutus in Thrace. He was defeated at the battle of Philippi and committed suicide in 42 BC.

Catiline Lucius Sergius Catilina. He was from an obscure patrician family but rose to political promi-nence in the 60s BC. He was defeated by Cicero for the consulship of 63 BC and exploited the wide-spread unrest in Italy. He was involved in a conspir-acy of rebellion against the state, against which Cicero took action. Catiline was defeated and killed in 62 BC.

Cato the Elder (or “the Censor”) Marcus Por-cius Cato. 234–149 BC. Born at Tusculum of a peasant family. A military tribune in the Second Punic War, subsequently he held various public offices. He was a prominent orator. He was opposed to the Scipios and was censor in 184 BC, noted for his severity. Cato was known for his stern morality and resisted the introduction of Greek culture to Rome. His ideal was to return to the primitive sim-plicity of a mainly agricultural state. He also wrote literature. Obsessed with the threat from Carthage, at the end of every debate in the Senate he declared Carthago delenda est (“Carthage must be destroyed”).

Cato “Uticensis” Marcus Porcius Cato “Uticensis”

(“of Utica”). 95–46 BC. Great-grandson of Cato the Elder, Cato held Stoic principles, became leader of the optimates in 63 BCand supported the Senate and Republican cause. He dominated the Senate in the late 60s BCand opposed the triumvirs. In 58 BChe was sent to administer Cyprus. He continued his opposition on his return, but then retired from pub-lic life. After the battle of Pharsalus, he continued the Republican resistance in Africa, but committed sui-cide at Utica after Caesar’s victory at Thapsus.

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero. 3 January 106 BC–7 December 43 BC. Born at Arpinum. Wives: Teren-tia (married 77 BC, divorced 46 BC), Publilia (mar-ried 46 BC, divorced shortly after). Daughter: Tullia

(c.79–45 BC). Son: Marcus Tullius Cicero (by Teren-tia, 65 BC–after 30 BC). Cicero was from an eques-trian family, a novus homo and orator who held numerous public offices. He became consul for 63

BC when he crushed Catiline’s conspiracy. He was opposed to Caesar and was exiled through a bill of Clodius in 58 BC. In 57 BChe was recalled. From 51

BChe was governor of Cilicia and was a supporter of Pompey in the civil war. He was reconciled with Caesar but supported his assassination, and deliv-ered a series of speeches (the Philippics) to the Sen-ate against Antony in 44 and 43 BC. However, Octavian made an alliance with Antony, proscrip-tions followed and Cicero was executed.

Cincinnatus Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus. He was a legendary hero who was recalled from his plow in 458 BCto save Rome when its army, under the consul Minucius, was being blockaded by the Italian Aequi tribe. He defeated the enemy, resigned his dictatorship after 16 days and returned to his farm.

Claudius Appius Claudius Caecus. He was censor in 312 BCand consul in 307 and 296 BC. While cen-sor, he constructed the via Appia and aqua Appia and extended membership of the Senate to rich citizens of lower classes and sons of freedmen. As consul he undertook various military campaigns in Italy.

When old and blind (caecus), he successfully opposed peace with Pyrrhus in 280/79 BC.

Clodius Publius Clodius Pulcher. c.92–52 BC, of a patrician family of the Claudius gens. He was a political opportunist who used the plebeian form of his name (Clodius) and sought adoption (possibly aided by Caesar and Pompey) by a plebeian family, enabling him to hold the tribunate legitimately in 58

BCand so extend his popularity. He was unsuccess-fully prosecuted by Cicero in 62 BCfor religious sac-rilege, and in 58 BChe secured Cicero’s exile. To further his own career, he subsequently turned against the triumvirate and was notorious for his violence toward his opponents. He was himself killed violently by Milo’s gangs.

Crassus Marcus Licinius Crassus. 115–53 BC. He was one of Sulla’s officers in 83 BC, praetor in 73 BC

and suppressed Spartacus’ slave revolt in 71 BC.

Crassus acquired great wealth, particularly through buying property cheaply after fires and rebuilding using his many slaves. He formed an alliance with Pompey and Caesar (First Triumvirate) in 60 BC, and went to Syria to acquire wealth and glory by vic-tory over the Parthians, but was defeated and killed at Carrhae.

Fabius Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus (or Rul-lus). 4th–3rd century BC. He was a Roman general who won victories against the Samnites, Etruscans and Gauls. He was five or six times consul (322, 310, 308, 297 and 295 BC), dictator in 315 BCand possi-bly 313 BC, and censor in 304 BC.

Fabius (Fabius Cunctator—Fabius the Delayer) Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus. c.275–203BC. He was a general in the Second Punic War and dicta-tor in 217 BCafter Hannibal destroyed the Roman army at the battle of Lake Trasimene. Fabius fought a defensive war against Hannibal, avoiding pitched battles. This was criticized until the Romans were defeated in 216 BC at Cannae, after which Fabius’

evasive strategy was resumed. He was consul for the fifth and last time in 209 BCand captured Tarento.

Faustina I (Faustina the Elder) Annia Galeria Faustina. Died in 140 or 141. Parents: Marcus Annius Verus and Rupilia Faustina. Husband:

Antoninus Pius (emperor). Children: Faustina II (married Marcus Aurelius) and three who died before Antoninus Pius became emperor.

Faustina II (Faustina the Younger) Annia Galeria Faustina, c.135–75. Parents: Antoninus Pius and Faustina I. Husband: Marcus Aurelius (emperor;

married 145). Children: 12 or 13, including Com-modus (emperor). Faustina was with Marcus Aure-lius in the east when she died at the foothills of the Taurus Mountains in a village which was renamed Faustinopolis.

Flamininus Titus Quinctius Flamininus. 228–174

BC. He was consul in 198 BC and was given com-mand against Philip V, defeating him at Cynoscephalae in 197 BC. He controlled Rome’s eastern policy in the 190s BCand gave Greece inde-pendence. In 194 BC he withdrew his forces from

Greece, but returned in 192 BCas unrest broke out and his Greek settlement failed. He was censor in 189 BC, but then his political influence at Rome declined.

Flaminius Gaius Flaminius. Died 217 BC. A pop-ular leader in opposition to the Senate. He was con-sul first in 223 BCand defeated the Insubres north of the River Po. As censor in 220 BChe built the Via Flaminia and Circus Flaminius. He was killed at the battle of Lake Trasimene fighting Hannibal’s army.

Germanicus Nero Claudius Germanicus, later Germanicus Julius Caesar. 15 BC–AD 19. Parents:

Drusus the Elder and Antonia. Wife: Agrippina the Elder. Children: nine including Caligula (emperor), Agrippina the Younger and Drusilla. Germanicus was adopted by Tiberius in AD4 when the latter was adopted by Augustus. He undertook military cam-paigns against the Germans in 14–16 and in 17 was sent to the east. He died at Antioch in suspicious cir-cumstances, possibly poisoned. His death caused widespread grief at Rome. Germanicus also wrote literature.

Gracchus, Gaius Gaius Sempronius Gracchus.

Died 121 BC. Parents: Tiberius Sempronius Grac-chus and Cornelia (daughter of Scipio Africanus).

Brother: Tiberius Gracchus. Gaius Gracchus was in Spain when his brother was murdered. He returned to Rome as a member of the agrarian commission.

In 126 BC he was quaestor in Sardinia, and was elected tribune for 123 and 122 BC. He proposed a series of radical administrative and agrarian reforms, designed to alleviate poverty, curb the power of the senators and extend rights to non-Roman Italians.

The rival tribune M. Livius Drusus (who had sena-torial support) undermined his popularity, and Gaius failed to obtain reelection. Violence erupted, and the Senate passed a declaration of public emer-gency (the first recorded use of the senatus consultum ultimum). Gaius ordered a slave to kill him.

Gracchus, Tiberius Tiberius Sempronius Grac-chus. c.164–133 BC. Parents: Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Cornelia (daughter of Scipio Afri-canus). Brother: Gaius Gracchus. Wife: daughter of Appius Claudius. He was quaestor in Spain and nego-tiated peace in 137 BC, which the Senate rejected. He was tribune in 133 BCand proposed an agrarian bill, which was hastily passed. It involved redistribution of land and affected large landholders. He also under-mined the Senate’s authority by proposing to the pop-ular assembly that the bequest of Attalus III should be accepted to finance the new smallholdings. He unconstitutionally sought reelection, and was attacked and killed by a mob led by Scipio Nasica.

Horatius Cocles, Publius He was a legendary one-eyed (“Cocles”) hero who held back the Etrus-can army led by Lars Porsenna in 508 BCwhile the wooden Bridge of Sublicius over the Tiber was demolished. He drowned or, according to some sources, swam to safety.

Julia 39 BC–AD 14. Parents: Augustus (emperor) and Scribonia. Husbands: M. Marcellus (married 25

BC, died 23 BC), Agrippa (married 21 BC, died 12 BC), Tiberius (married 11 BC). Children: (by Agrippa) Gaius and Lucius Caesar, Julia, Agrippina the Elder and Agrippa Postumus. Julia quarreled with Tiberius and was exiled by Augustus in 2 BCfor adultery.

1.6 Obverse of a denarius of the deified Faustina (DIVA FAVSTINA). (Courtesy of Somerset County Museums Service)

Lepidus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Died 13 or 12

BC. Wife: Junia. Lepidus was praetor in 49 BC, con-sul in 46 BCand cavalry commander in 46–44 BC. He was a supporter of Caesar, after whose death he formed a triumvirate with Antony and Octavian. He challenged Octavian, but his soldiers deserted to Octavian, and he was forced to retire.

Livia Livia Drusilla, later known as Julia Augusta.

58 BC–AD29. Husbands: Tiberius Claudius Nero (divorced 39 BC), Augustus (married 38 BC, emperor). Children: (by Nero) Tiberius (emperor), Claudius Drusus.

Manlius Capitolinus Marcus Manlius Capitolinus.

Died 395 or 394 BC. Consul in 392 BC. He allegedly held the Capitol at Rome when the Gauls sacked the city, having been woken by cackling geese. He became a supporter of the poor but was accused of tyranny and was thrown to his death from the Tarpeian rock.

Marcellus Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Died 208

BC. Consul in 222, 215, 214, 210 and 208 BC. In 222

BChe won a triumph for victories in Cisalpine Gaul in which he killed a Gallic chieftain in single com-bat. He then won distinction in the Second Punic War against Hannibal, being more aggressive than Fabius Cunctator. He captured Syracuse in 211 BC

but was later killed in a Carthaginian ambush.

Marius Gaius Marius. 157–86 BC. Born near Arpinum of an equestrian family. He served at the siege of Numantia under Scipio Aemilianus in 134–133 BCand became plebeian tribune in 119 BC. In 109 BChe went with Metellus as legate to the war in Numidia, and was elected consul in 107 BCafter intriguing against Metellus. He ended the war in Numidia, celebrating a triumph in 104 BC, and in both 102 and 101 BCdefeated Germanic tribes who were invading Gaul and Italy. Marius was also responsible for a reorganization of the army. From 104 to 100 BChe was consul every year, apparently with the agreement of the Senate. Marius forged close ties with Saturninus (plebeian tribune), who used violent methods to promote legislation. The Senate passed an emergency decree (senatus consul-tum ultimum) to suppress Saturninus, which Marius

undertook. Marius then withdrew to Asia Minor (99–97 BC) and his influence declined. He gained command of the war against Mithridates, contrary to the expectations of Sulla, who marched on Rome, causing Marius to flee to Africa. Marius returned to Italy in 87 BC, became consul in 86 BC, undertook a massacre of his enemies but died shortly after.

Milo Titus Annius Milo. Died 48 BC. Wife: Fausta (Sulla’s daughter, married 54 BC). Tribune at Rome in 57 BC. Milo was encouraged by Pompey to act against Clodius, which he undertook by violence and rival gangs for the next five years. He aimed to become consul in 52 BCand precipitated a crisis in which Pompey became sole consul to restore order.

Milo was prosecuted, Cicero was apparently intimi-dated in his defense of Milo and withdrew, and Milo was exiled. In 48 BCMilo joined an abortive rebel-lion against Caesar and was killed in southern Italy.

Nicomachus Virius Nicomachus Flavianus. 334–394.

He was a prominent senator, pagan and friend of

He was a prominent senator, pagan and friend of

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