the clinical implications of a potential link between social constraints and what this means for those who did not actively seek child custody were unfortunately not discussed.
Similarly, Fox (2002) conducted a qualitative study to demonstrate that men post-separation or divorce can ‘mother’. In this research, it appeared that the experience of doing care transforms fathering. She identified events around the breakdown of the parental relationship to follow one of four patterns. In the first, the woman left without the children. This was both the least ambiguous and the most common situation. The second most common scenario, accounting for around a third of respondents, concerned the man moving out alone, but subsequently became the children's main carer. When non-resident fathers became primary carers, it was always precipitated by a life event or crisis in the parent (i.e. the mother) who formerly had taken up the primary care role. In more than half of these cases, fathers became primary carers as a direct result of Social Service intervention. The least common situation in this sample was a parent (i.e. the father) leaving with the child or children. Fox (2002), like O’Brien (1980), also found that the transition is typically more abrupt when the mother leaves, with little time to reflect for most fathers on the implications of this significant change in the structure of their everyday lives. The withdrawal of a maternal presence means that these fathers are not only left with their own feelings and emotions, but that they are also left with the unmediated emotional and material needs and demands of their children. Consequently, men in this position reported feeling constrained to change their lives in radical ways.
The clinical implications can be very important here, namely in relation to the father-child relationship. Therefore, more research exploring lone fathers who did not actively seek child custody could be useful as a parent’s initial attitude and feelings about his child might, according to Greif (1987), be influenced by whether he wanted sole responsibility. Thus, integrating research into practice may lead to the development of therapeutic interventions that are specific to this situational context as human functioning cannot be understood without consideration of the context in which it occurs. As Amato (2000) emphasises, adjustment, severity and duration of negative outcomes varies from person to person and highly depends on the presence of moderating or protective factors.
3.6 Conclusions and Research Aims
Findings from the studies above highlight that lone fathers often face difficulties that are linked to structural, attitudinal and personal factors. They also emphasise how their experience might be influenced by gender stereotypes, leading to feelings of loneliness and
- 34 - isolation in the context of experiencing exclusion and difference and in the context of reported practical limitations to socialising. Gender stereotypes appear to influence how men understand the nature of their responsibility as fathers and how they conceptualise their children’s distress. There are mixed findings about whether or not the circumstances that leads to lone fatherhood impact upon men’s experiences as lone fathers. Despite the potential usefulness of involving (lone) fathers in psychological services, the field of psychology has not kept pace with the growth in the number of lone father families (Lewis, 1986; Walters, 2011). The lack of emphasis on gender and the growing interest on ‘evidence-based practice’ might explain why health and caring professions in the UK tend to hold on to gender-centric views about parenting, and understand parenting in terms of mothers and mothering; consequently they struggle to know what works in engaging men who are fathers (Page et al., 2009; Williams, 2015). While there is a growing UK literature on fathers and policy relating to father engagement, there is very limited research that recognises the specific needs different fathers may have (Sherriff, 2007).
Many times, the socialisation processes teaches individuals that the mother should be and is the nurturing parent and the father should be and is the breadwinner and disciplinarian. Therefore, it only stands to reason that society will be reluctant to accept and adjust to a phenomenon such as lone fatherhood, wherein the father takes on all roles. Indeed, of all the changes in family life during the 20th century, perhaps the most impactful in its implications, Amato (2000) claims, is the increase in the rate of divorce or separation. As referred to earlier, the two-parent family setting tends to be seen as the foundational institution of society; the setting in which adults achieve a sense of meaning, stability and security and also in which children develop into competent and successful citizens. This is particularly important as there is rich UK literature that emphasises the potential negative impact of divorce or separation on both parents and children (e.g. Mooney et al., 2009; Walker et al., 2010). Parental self-report studies of child behaviour have also indicated mixed findings around circumstances leading to lone parenthood and the impact on children’s distress (e.g. Risman & Park, 1988; De Maris & Grief, 1992; Amato, 2000). The limited qualitative and quantitative studies have suggested that lone father families as a result of separation or divorce are not a homogeneous group. For instance, those fathers who insisted on or fought for the custody of their children must be distinguished from those who, differently, had no adjustment period in taking over the care of children (O’Brien, 1980; Guttman, 1989; Fox, 2002). Additionally, Cooper et al. (2007) found that there are higher rates of CMD in lone fathers who are separated or divorced rather than widowed, and research by Jones et al. (2012) suggested that at the point of separation, men in particular are of vulnerable mind.
- 35 - The current study is an inductive piece of research where the data speaks for itself and new insights emerge from the data with the intention of developing a theoretical model of an experience or process grounded in individual perspectives. The current study intends to elicit a better understanding of men relating to and raising children alone in the context of post- separation/divorce. Exploring social psychological processes involved, this study aims to make sense of how men understand their experience of becoming lone fathers, the challenges that they might face and how they might work through them.
In light of all of the above, the present study aims to explore the following research questions:
1. How do men raising children alone and in the context of post-separation or divorce understand their experience of becoming lone fathers?
2. How do men raising children alone and in the context of post-separation or divorce address any difficulties or challenges they may experience?
3. How do men raising children alone and in the context of post-separation or divorce understand the relationship with their children?