Though out the literature, there are both conceptual and empirical grounds to
relate EI to various concepts in counselling and psychotherapy practising. In 1936,
Rosenzwigs published an article in the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, suggesting
that some potent implicit common factors are more important than the methods to have
success in therapy. Years later, Heine (1953) supported Rosenzwigs observations and also
concluded that the characteristics of the therapist are more important than the approach
and techniques in obtaining a successful therapeutic outcome. Much later, Luborsky et al.
(1986) reported findings from four major studies on outcomes, demonstrating how a
therapist’s personal competencies make a greater contribution to therapeutic outcomes than the treatment modality.
EI appears to be one of these personal competencies of a successful therapist, but
the construct has been referred to various names throughout the literature, such as
Alexander’sΝandΝFrench’sΝ(1946)ΝnotionΝofΝ“correctiveΝemotionalΝexperience”,ΝasΝwellΝasΝ throughoutΝ CarlΝ RogersΝ workΝ inΝ “Client-CenteredΝ Therapy” (1951),Ν “On Becoming a Person” (1961),ΝandΝ“AΝWayΝofΝBeing” (1980). A number of other studies demonstrated thatΝtherapists’ΝrelationalΝskillsΝ– a component of EI - can mediate the therapeutic process
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and outcomes (Lambert, 1986; Orlinsky & Howard, 1980; Rogers, 1957; Truax and
Carkuff, 1967; Grencavage and Norcross, 1990; Norcross, 2002; Ackerman & Hilsenroth,
2003; Hersoug et al., 2001; Mallinckrodt & Nelson, 1991). Stupp (1986) suggested that
aΝ therapist’sΝ skillsetΝ needsΝ toΝ consistΝ ofΝ anΝ ability to create a particular interpersonal context, and within that context, to facilitate certain kinds of learning in order to be
successful with clients.
Without psychotherapy research, we can have no clear perspective of how people
differ in their relational and emotional competencies or in their regulation of emotions. It
mayΝbeΝthatΝEIΝencompassesΝaΝnewΝpsychologicalΝterrainΝthatΝcouldΝaddΝtoΝtherapists’Ν understanding of their own and others differences in emotion. Such knowledge can aid
with helping patients adapt to threats and opportunities.
Psychotherapists, counsellors, and general mental health workers face an
enormous challenge with complex realities in their professional practice. EI may help as
it has been found to be a significant contributorΝtoΝhealthΝprofessionals’ΝknowledgeΝandΝ practice (Jaeger 2003; Hen & Goroshit, 2011; Jahangard et al., 2012; Rieck & Callahan,
2013). However, despite its potential relevance for counselling and psychotherapy
practice, there has been little investigation and few research papers about its application
in therapeutic settings, or in professional development courses and counselling
psychology educational programs (Poullis, 2003; Hen & Goroshit, 2011; Rieck &
Callahan, 2013). Despite the association and overlaps between the EI model and
psychotherapy models, in particular on interpersonal and affective competencies (Ikiz,
2009), there has been only one study to date by Kaplowitz, Safran and Muran (2011) that
explores empirically how therapist EI impacts treatment (Rieck & Callahan, 2013).
Psychotherapy researchers are increasingly in agreement that caring in mental
health is complex and needs therapists who are competent of developing relational skills
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2004), and discovering the active emotional learning competencies of therapeutic change.
Equally important is preparing therapists to participate in therapeutic relatedness under a
great deal of severe emotional stress with specific problems and behaviours from their
clients (e.g., depression, anxiety, delusions, aggressions, resistance, suicide, self-harm,
mistrust).ΝNorcrossΝ(2000)ΝemphasizedΝtheΝimportanceΝofΝtheΝ“hazardsΝofΝpsychologicalΝ practice”Ν(p.Ν710).Ν
In a broader context, the true effectiveness of a psychological treatment lies in
developing and testing a successful psychotherapy training program (Hilsenroth, Defife,
Blagys, & Ackerman, 2006). The components of professional psychology competencies
have been a prominent theme throughout therapist/psychologist training and professional
education (Spruill et al., 2004). The emotional stress on a therapist can cause the
experiences of burnout when they must deal regularly with feelings of anger, pity, fear,
irritation and impatience. Given such stress, therapists could negatively impact other
therapeutic relationships and treatment outcomes (Akerjordet & Severinsson, 2004;
Megens & van Meijel, 2006).
According to Hochschild (1983), to prevent burnout or negative outcomes in the
therapeutic process, therapists need to regulate their emotional expressions in a way
beneficial to the situation, the patient or both. Martin, Garske and Davis (2000) also noted
that a competent therapist must receive training in building relationship skills. Rogers
advocated for interpersonal abilities, such as empathy and congruence, in the therapeutic
relationship. Rydon (2005) demonstrated the underlying complexities of therapeutic
engagement and identified the need for interpersonal constructs of resilience and
hardiness, self-awareness and openness, Hurley and Rankin (2008) advocated that in
order to therapeutically engage with someone, cognitive intelligence is not sufficient, as
this process demands the need for communication, authenticity and genuineness that are
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TheΝcapacityΝtoΝdevelopΝtheseΝskillsΝcouldΝbeΝfacilitatedΝbyΝone’sΝdegreeΝofΝEIΝorΝ EI training (Salovey et al., 2008). Some researchers (Hurley, 2008; Akerjordei &
Severinson, 2007) have explored EI with mental health nurses and found that the
construct is essential to developing professional competence and being effective in the
mental health setting. Harley and Rankin (2008) concluded that to practically incorporate
EI into educative practice within the therapeutic relationship, the tasks should foster
enquiry-based learning activities grounded not on content and knowledge but on the
experiences to emotionally engage with learners on an interpersonal level of self-
awareness and empathy. It seems clear that EI abilities are implicitly related with the
development of relationship/interpersonal skills and are affiliated with therapeutic
relationship competencies.
EI has the potential to improve training and clinical outcomes, but even more
important is the utilization of existing EI measurement tools by repurposing them for
inservice therapists. Because EI and emotional competencies are complex and
multifaceted, assessment should also be multidimensional with experiential teaching
modes (Hens & Goroshit, 2011). EI can become an efficient way of overcoming the
gradual accumulation of clinical exposure to therapists. On reflection of my own
experience, IΝendorseΝDanielsenΝandΝCawley’sΝ(2007)ΝassertionΝthatΝbothΝcompassionΝandΝ integrity, and subsequently EI, cannot be taught in a traditional manner.
Through the practicum experience, there is a requirement to develop new
experiential methods (Hens & Goroshit, 2011) and for accessing, evaluating, and
applying scientific knowledge (Bieschke, Fouad, Collins & Halonen, 2004). Hatcher and
LassiterΝ(2007)ΝinΝtheirΝintroductionΝtoΝtheΝ“PracticumΝcompetenciesΝoutline”ΝemphasizedΝ the development of baseline competencies in psychology training; these include:
interpersonal skills (e.g., listening, empathy, and openness), cognitive skills (e.g.,
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resilience, tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty), personality/attitudes (e.g., the desire to
help others, openness to new ideas, integrity, honesty, personal courage), expressive skills
(e.g.,Ν abilityΝ toΝ communicateΝ accuratelyΝ one’sΝ ideasΝ orΝ feelingsΝ bothΝ verballyΝ andΝ nonverbally),ΝreflectiveΝskillsΝ(e.g.,ΝabilityΝtoΝexamineΝandΝconsiderΝone’sΝownΝmotivesΝ attitudes, behaviour, and their effect on others) and personal skills (e.g., personal
organization, hygiene).
Given the relevancy of EI to baseline competencies, encompassing EI experiential
activities in the current therapy environment, such as self-exploration, empathy,
emotionalΝlearning,ΝroleΝplayingΝandΝresilience,ΝcouldΝimproveΝtherapists’ΝdegreeΝofΝEIΝ and thus, the therapeutic relationship and intended outcomes. One approach is the
modelling technique, which has been introduced for health professionals to teach
compassion, integrity and EI to medical students (Danielsen & Cawley, 2007; Cooke et
al., 2006). Modelling is based on a cognitive psychology notion in which concepts are
best learned and put into action when they are taught, practised and assessed in the context
in which they will be used (Cooke et al., 2006).
After a critical review of EI teaching models, Hens and Goroshit (2011) concluded
that the best way of teaching EI, emotional competencies, and interpersonal skills is by
adopting a constructivist approach. The researchers indicate that the needed constructivist
learning environment should first provide health care professionals an active process to
construct meaning around their own experience, rather than teach, practice and assess EI
competencies. Second, the method should engage participants in a process of assimilating
and accommodating new information in their cognitive framework, and in so doing foster
thereby fostering significant learning and profound understanding. Last, the approach
establishes a community of learners that constitutes both instructors and students, whereas
students are encouraged to recess emotional events by identifying, understanding,
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Following the development of a social work course that incorporates such a
constructivist EI approach, HenΝandΝGoroshitΝ(2011)ΝexploredΝitsΝeffectΝonΝaΝstudents’Ν degreeΝ ofΝ EIΝ andΝ empathy.Ν UsingΝ Schutte’sΝ SelfΝ ReportΝ EmotionalΝ IntelligenceΝ TestΝ (1998) to measure EI and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1988) to measure
empathy, they found an increase in EI scores from the beginning to the end of the course
for advanced-year students but not for first-year students, suggesting such a constructivist
approach may only be helpful for advanced students with experience to reflect upon.
Further empirical research is needed in counselling psychology to examine whether an
experientialΝEIΝcourseΝcouldΝenhanceΝstudents’ΝemotionalΝcompetenciesΝandΝdegreeΝofΝEI,Ν especially for advanced students.
In the first study to explore ability EI with psychotherapy, Kaplowitz, Safran and
MuranΝ(2011)ΝexploredΝwhetherΝtherapists’ΝdegreeΝofΝEIΝservedΝasΝaΝpotentialΝmediatorΝofΝ the therapeutic process and its outcomes. The sample comprised 23 therapist-patient
dyads. The outcome metrics included a series of self-reported therapist and patient rated
inventories, administered at four time points (intake-after the fourth session, midphase,
termination and three months follow-up). The researchers found moderate initial evidence
supporting the hypothesis that a therapist’s emotional skills have a positive influence on treatment efficacy. The findings revealed that higher overall therapist EI led to a reduction
in therapist-rated complaints and patient interpersonal problems. Moreover, a higher the
therapist’sΝ scoreΝ onΝ emotion-management abilities (a subcomponent/branch of EI measurement) resulted in a lower patient drop-out rate and a greater improvement in
patient-rated symptomology. Despite the sample deficiencies of the study, the findings
Page 65 3.5.Summary
To conclude, there are three main EI models: mental ability models, mixed
models, and the trait EI model. The mental ability models of Salovey and Mayer (1990),
Mayer and Salovey (1997), and Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2000) emphasize the role
of emotions themselves and the interactions they have with thought. Further, the mixed
models of Bar-On (1997) and Goleman (1995a) indicate that both mental abilities and a
multitude of other individual characteristics— including states of consciousness (and flow), motivation, and social activity—come together as a singular entity to create EI. The trait EI model, however, as developed by Petrides et al. (2007), focuses on the self-
perceptions of individuals with respect to their emotional self-efficacy and self-perceived
ability to determine their EI. All these models have their benefits and limitations, as well
as accompanying measurements.
The therapeuticΝrelationshipΝwouldΝappearΝtoΝbeΝrelatedΝtoΝSaloveyΝandΝMayer’sΝ (1990) definition of EI as encompassing awareness, understanding, and emotional
managementΝofΝone’sΝselfΝandΝothers.ΝInterestingly,ΝSafranΝandΝMuranΝ(2000),ΝinΝtheirΝ review of contemporary relational theory, emphasize one of the important variables of
therapist competencies is the capacity to properly perceive, process, understand, and
respond appropriately to the relational dynamics in the therapeutic relationship. The
therapeutic encounter strongly emphasizes relational dynamics, interpersonal and
affective skills between the therapist and client, and the relationship between client and
therapist. The TEIQue emotionality branch overlaps with therapeutic responsiveness, and
the self-control branch corresponds with pattern recognition and mindfulness. The central
concern is the experiential application of TEIQue in counselling and psychotherapy
learning programs. Ironically, it may undermine one of the original reasons for
introducing trait EI, to enhance the competence and quality of outcomes of therapist
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