It is clear from reviewing the extant literature that the primary emphasis in this thesis
is on EI and the therapeutic relationship. It would be impractical for the purposes of the
thesis and indeed counterproductive to insist that this review, on EI and therapeutic
relationship, should encompass and integrate all psychotherapy approaches and treatment
modalities. However, it is imperative to consider the conceptual overlap between EI and
EFT as a useful corpus of knowledge and for any future research.
The following section briefly outlines some overlapping aspects shared by emotion-
focused therapy (EFT) and EI and its potentialΝintegrationΝinΝclinicalΝtraining.ΝEFT’sΝrootsΝ are in the humanistic tradition and particularly in the research on emotions (Greenberg,
2011). In EFT the therapist focuses on painful and avoided emotions from the client
(Timulak, 2014). Timulak and Pascual-Leone (2014) has commended how important the
therapist’sΝabilityΝtoΝattuneΝwithΝtheΝclient’sΝsubjectiveΝemotionalΝprocessesΝandΝworldΝofΝ meaningΝis.ΝTheΝtherapist’sΝconveyanceΝofΝempathy,Νcalmness,Νconnection,Νauthenticity,Ν security, and trust enables the client to transform the experience of past maladaptive
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memories of emotions into a more positive re-experience within the therapeutic alliance
(SpruilΝ etΝ al.,Ν 2004).Ν AΝ similarΝ conceptΝ toΝ theΝ “correctiveΝ emotionalΝ experience’”Ν ofΝ Alexander and French (1946).ΝTheΝtherapist’sΝattunementΝwithΝtheΝclientsΝsharedΝsenseΝofΝ emotional suffering, is crucial in the overall outcome of therapy (Kivlighan & Arthur
2000).
Taken together EFT experts (Paivio & Laurent 2001; Greenberg & Elliott 1997) have
identified a set of specific interrelated functions of empathic responses. Firstly, the
development of empathic response fosters an advance ability of awareness which assists
clients to perceive, appraise and express the meaning of emotional experience. Secondly,
the knowledge gained through empathic responses may function as an important
foundationΝ toΝ manageΝ emotionsΝ byΝ moderatingΝ distress.Ν ForΝ instance,Ν aΝ client’sΝ emotionally painful memory is re-experienced, the therapist attunes to the emerging
narrative context via the appropriate empathic responses, which can alternate and
transform an emotional experience (Timulak & Pascual-Leone, 2014).
Thirdly,ΝwhenΝclientsΝexperienceΝtheΝtherapist’sΝempathicΝresponseΝinterventions,ΝitΝ could help them to understand and analyse the meaning of feelings and to reflectively
engage in their emotional experiences (Paivio, 2013). A related conceptualization of
understanding mental states such as empathic response and emotional processing was
offered under separate literature, based on the field of emotions and cognition as part of
anΝindividual’sΝemotionalΝintelligenceΝ(MayerΝ&ΝSalovey,Ν1997).ΝTheΝMayerΝandΝSaloveyΝ (1997)Ν modelΝ ofΝ EIΝ encompassesΝ 4Ν relationalΝ competenciesΝ orΝ “dimensions”Ν betweenΝ therapist and client: (1) the perceiving, appraising and expressing of emotion, (2)
emotional facilitating of thinking, (3) understanding, analysing, and employment of
emotional knowledge, (4) and lastly, reflective regulation of emotions in order to promote
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Taken together the four dimensions of EI, an empathic response is to some extent a
conceptual overlap with the first two branches of EI above, since an empathic response
entailsΝtheΝabilityΝtoΝidentifyΝtheΝotherΝperson’sΝphysicalΝstate,ΝfeelingsΝandΝthoughts and to prioritize feelings as aids to judgement. The second function of managing emotions,
refers to the third and fourth dimensions of EI as an ability to see relationships among
feelings, thoughts and behaviours, then reflectively engage, monitor, and interpret an
appropriate meaning. From the EFT perspective, Paivio (2013) advocates that any
therapeutic change is a process of two main mechanisms, namely emotional processing
and therapeutic relationship. The emotion theory posits that emotions are meaningful
information such as beliefs, feelings, wishes, and bodily experiences (Paivio, 2013). The
therapistsΝneedΝtoΝtriggerΝorΝemotionallyΝactivateΝtheirΝclients’ΝpainfulΝmemoryΝviaΝtheΝ appropriate empathic responses (Greenberg & Golman, 2007). Similarly, researchers
have examined the potential value of EI in therapeutic settings (Kaplowitz, Safran &
Muran, 2011; Poullis, 2007). Unfortunately the research examining EFT and its link to
EI within therapeutic and clinical settings does not exist. Although Kaplowitz et al. (2011)
elucidated the overlap between EI and therapist-relational abilities, the study findings of
Rieck and Callahan (2013) adds to the need for more research by citing that better
therapeutic outcomes can be encouraged when trainee clinicians score higher on both
neuroticism and EI.
EFT perspective (Greenberg & Pascual-Leone, 2006) have emphasized emotional
change processing, which encompass reflective strategies for self-awareness,
understanding and regulating emotions and emotional states. Thus the primary focus is
on emotions and how to experience a new level of emotions in order to re-experience and
change dysfunctional emotional meaning. Despite all the importance of EFT experiential
interventions and empathic response, there has not been any substantive discussion about
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system (Hodgson & Wertheim, 2007). Within the understanding and investigation of
emotions, the most prominent components are cognitive empathy and affective empathy
(Pizarro & Salovey, 2002). According to Duan and Hill (1996) the affective component
isΝrootedΝinΝtheΝemotionsΝofΝanΝindividualΝatΝtheΝ“hereΝandΝnow”ΝmomentsΝofΝexperience,Ν whilst the cognitive part originates in the intellectual understanding of such an experience.
There is a fundamental assumption that these two parts of empathy, cognitive and
affective, contribute to an interdependent system of cognitive-affective processes
(Hodgson & Wertheim, 2007).
Psychological intervention in therapy is an ongoing goal for treatment and an
adaptation of scientific therapeutic evidence in therapeutic approach and clinical practice
(Hens & Goroshit, 2011; Spruil et al., 2004). There is a broad agreement amongst
researchers in therapy that learning should encompass experiential, didactic and
mentoring experiences. Training approaches requires emotional competencies (Hens &
Goroshit, 2011) and an understanding of an ongoing process (Stein & Lambert, 1995) of
maintaining an effective therapeuticΝallianceΝthatΝdependsΝlargelyΝuponΝtheΝtherapist’sΝ interpersonal and communication skills (Spruil et al., 2004).
4.7. Summary
This literature review succeeded in reviewing literature relevant to the therapeutic
relationship and EI. After reviewing the various contributions from seminal researchers
and theorists, such as Norcross (2002), Luborsky et al., (1986), Grencavage and Norcross
(1990) is evidently that developing therapeutic common factors can facilitate a positive
change in therapeutic alliance and outcomes. Previous work as depicted in the work of
Goleman (1995), Bar-On (1997), Petrides and Furnham (2001), Petrides et al. (2007),
Ciarocchi et al. (2000), and the numerous other theories developed in association with
this research topic, accentuated that there are some considerable gaps in the current
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and the role of emotional intelligence within of the therapeutic relationship. Some
contributions, such as Ciarocchi et al. (2000), provided only a superficial assessment and
analysis of this link and its potential impact on the individual.
This review then underscores the significance of carrying out a research study
aimed at analysing and determining the existence and importance of this relationship.
Furthermore, the chapter covered reviews of research studies on the therapeutic
relationship, emotions, and intelligence traits. These reinforced the significance of this
research, concerning the therapeutic relationship on the basis of a deficiency of studies in
this area. Finally, the author also recommends that any future direction in EI and
therapeutic relationship, need to integrate evidence-based therapeutic approaches and
particularly experiential therapy. EI and emotion-focused therapy (EFT) have certain
similarities in that both use emotion as a primary source of information and construction
ofΝ meaning.Ν AsΝ PaivioΝ (2013)Ν evocativelyΝ suggests,Ν “EFTΝ positsΝ theΝ therapeuticΝ relationship and emotional processing asΝtheΝtwoΝprimaryΝmechanismsΝofΝchange”Ν(p.Ν 342).