Una vez calculado y distribuido la cuota correspondiente, se incluirá en los recibos para efecto de cobro

Ivo Cumbana

Food preferences of producers and their households influence decisions on crops grown for self- consumption, while food and the eating habits of consumers/buyers of urban agricultural prod- ucts determine their demand on the market. Urban agricultural research must therefore look at food and eating habits.

Food habits are defined as the way in which producers and households use the food they have, including how they acquire it, the frequency of food consumption, and the composition of the diet that determines the pattern of food consumption. Eating habits refer to the durable disposi- tion acquired by frequent repetition of an act, use, or custom (Abreu et al., 2001). Eating habits

"depend, on one hand, on the possibilities of access to food: production and consumption depending on the position that individuals and groups occupy in the productive process. On the other hand, they depend on cultural contexts precisely because feeding is a socio- cultural phenomenon. That is, eating habits have symbolic and cognitive contents rela- tive to the perception of the human organism and the relationship between sensations and the substances ingested" (Freitas et al., 2008, p. 25).

Looking at the main crops produced, producer food habits during working hours in the macham-

bas and their respective households, this chapter answers the questions: What do urban farmers

produce? and: What do producers and their households consume?

3.7.1 Farmers’ production

Vegetable production in Maputo Citys machambas is dominated by lettuce and cabbage in the districts where horticultural production is practised, with KaMavota and KaMubukwana districts as the largest producers. 99% of farmers in 90% of the production areas grow lettuce and cab- bage year-round owing to their affordable production cost, short production cycle (30 to 45 days) and high market demand (17_B_MP, n=369). According to the interviewees, a small number of farmers have cultivated spinach, broccoli, cowpea, cauliflower, garlic, turnip and basil over the last ten years and met a considerable consumer demand.

Regarding the planting of fruit trees, 86% of farmers have banana trees, 36% mango trees and 51% papaya trees in their machambas, where they take advantage of existing water channels and ditches (17_B_MP, n=344).

In addition, 44% also grow lettuce, cabbage, onions and tomatoes in the backyards of their homes on small plots varying from 3m2 _{to 12m}2_.

While most interviewed farmers produce for economic reasons, 75% also consume their own vegetables (17_B_MP, n=368). In this case, production is geared towards household food prefer- ences, thereby contributing significantly to their food and nutrition security (see Chapters 3.7 and 3.8).

Animal husbandry is practised by only 28% of the total 369 respondents. This takes place in their own backyards or around their homes and not in the association machambas due to lack of infra- structure, high production costs and lack of security against theft. The animals raised are ducks (66%), chickens (51%), pigs (20%) and goats (3%). Duck is the most common animal bred due to low production costs, the use of leftovers as feed and the higher selling price compared to other poultry (17_B_MP, n=102).

Diversification in vegetable production is poor. The same crops are cultivated over and over again. On the other hand, urban agriculture means availability of and access to food, especially leafy vegetables, and to income. Although fruit production, primarily bananas and papayas, usu- ally takes place in the fields, it is not the producers’ main focus. Livestock production is carried out in backyards and less relevant as a contribution to food availability in Maputo’s food system.

3.7.2 Food consumption of producers and their households

For most association farmers, their work in the field is a full-time occupation (see Chapter 3.4). The routine of an urban farmer in Maputo is a working day from Monday to Friday from 6 am to 5 pm with an average break of one to two hours. In addition, urban farmers usually work on Satur- day mornings. This routine influences their food behaviour, determining what they consume in the machambas and in their homes.

Food consumption of producers in the machambas

In the machambas, most producers eat one meal (lunch) consisting of bread and badgia (fried bean cakes), maguinha (small fried rings made from wheat) or maheu (homemade drink from corn flour), all of which are acquired in the fields. They spend an average of 10 to 20 MZN on this meal. From the producer point of view, it is food purchased at an affordable price that gives strength and a sense of satiation, allowing them to endure long hours of work in the fields. On rare occasions, if food is left over from their evening meal, they take it with them the following day for consumption during their break.

Producers who work near their homes eat their meals at home (see below). From the producer perspective, an ideal lunchtime meal at the machambas should consist of feijoada (hotpot on a bean basis) accompanied by cornmeal to give them ‘strength’. Even if ‘hot meals’ are on sale, producers will not buy them because of the expense (between 60 and 120 MZN, approx. 0,85 to 1,70 €). Hence financial circumstances and food access are key determinants in the choice of what to eat. It is important to consider accessibility and the purchasing power of producers, which often hinders a balanced diet of different food groups, i.e., basic foods (cereals and tu- bers), food builders (for growth), protective foods (fruits and vegetables), and energy foods (Sanches & Smith, 2014).

The consumption of fruit was mentioned only marginally, and in the producers’ opinion does not ‘fill the belly’ or is not ‘filling’ enough for work in the field. Filling food is understood as the sort "the one that will make people strong, because it is through the perceived strength of food that endurance and aptitude for agricultural work will be obtained" (Canesqui, 2007 in Krone, 2011, p.33).

It was also observed that in the few cases where fruit consumption was mentioned, imported fruit such as apples, pears and grapes were favoured over home grown fruit such as tindziwa,

malambe, guava and mapfilua (Vangueira infausta), although in terms of price these are more

affordable and have a recognised nutritional value. According to the producers, local fruit some- times wastes away due to periodic high produce availability and the absence of conservation facilities and techniques. In other words, the fruit surplus is not availed of to produce jams, pick- les or juices, which would help to diversify their diet.

To conclude, producers consume little of what they produce during their working day. The basic food that producers eat in the fields always contains a cereal, either wheat or corn flour. The pro- ducers claim lack of time and facilities (e.g., shortage of drinking water, cooking facilities) as ob- stacles to preparing meals in the fields. According to the interviewees, the meal in the field is

secondary, not fundamental. The most important meals are those they eat in their own homes (see below).

Consumption in households

All the vegetables grown on association land are also consumed by the households of the pro- ducers, with an emphasis on cabbage (99%), lettuce (100%) and pumpkin leaves (85%), (17_B_MP). A comparison between the production and consumption of vegetables, however, shows that the leaves of nhemba beans, sweet potatoes and cabbage, although consumed, are produced by a lesser number of farmers.

Vegetable leaves are prepared with peanuts and coconut milk and served with cereals (rice or corn flour). Given the shortage of time and the involvement of women in production or other professional activities, the leaves are sometimes simply prepared with oil. Families with econom- ic power add fish (horse mackerel imported from Angola) to the leafy vegetables and some cere- als (rice or corn flour).

Thus, in 69% of households, the main meal is composed of vegetables (cabbage and pumpkin leaves) and cereals (rice and corn flour), (17_B_MP, n=294). Only 13% of households have meals composed of cereals, fish, red meats and vegetables. In 12% of households, the main meal con- sists frequently of cereal and fish, and in 6% of household’s cereals and chicken constitute the main meal (17_B_MP, n=297). The consumption of animal protein is generally low. Although the dietary pattern of producer households includes vegetables and cereals, it is low on fruit and an- imal protein, which contain the vitamins so crucial to growth, notably children’s growth. Accord- ing to UNICEF (2017), only 2% of children in Maputo City aged 6-23 months had a minimum ac- ceptable diet and only 28% of children in the same age group consumed at least four food groups (basic foods, foods builders (for growth), protective foods, and energy foods). 54% of children aged 6-23 months had vitamin A intake, the source of which is mostly of vegetable rather than animal origin. Added to the lack of diversity, vegetables tend to be overcooked, leading to a very low vitamin content.

This data confirms the findings of the study by Raimundo et al. (2014), according to which dietary diversity in about half the households covered was low, presenting a deficit of micro and macro nutrients essential to a balanced diet.

On the subject of meat consumption, 62% of households consume chicken meat more frequently than any other meat. According to the interviewees, this high chicken consumption is due to the affordability of chicken meat. A broiler costs on average 215 MZN (ca. 3 €), while a duck costs 500 MZN (ca. 7 €). At informal markets, chicken meat is even more affordable as it is offered in small portions (sale in grams or chicken parts). In general, expensive red meat is consumed on festive occasions only, e.g., family ceremonies or as an exception at weekends.

The food preferences of individual household members diverge. Whereas adults and the elderly (45 and over) usually opt for traditional cuisine based on vegetables, legumes, and maize and cassava flour such as corn meal (cassava and cowpea) and tihove (corn flour similar to the South African ‘samp’ prepared with peanut butter), a majority of adolescents and young people in households prefers to eat meat, rice and fried foods, even coveting fast food and fast-food types

should their financial resources allow. For adolescents and young people ‘fast food, chips, and meat are in fashion and make them grow’. These household perceptions show the tenuous boundary between categories seen as healthy or unhealthy, and the risks and consequences for consumers. On the other hand, young people’s food preferences are indicative of a shift in con- sumption patterns.

In fact, there is evidence of an increase in licences for restaurants and pizzerias in Maputo City, all of which offer fast food. Their customers are teenagers but also staff from various institutions. According to the Department of Economic Activities in the Municipality of Maputo, licensing increased from seven in 2010 to 236 in 2017, mostly for restaurants, take-aways and bars.

A survey conducted by the Department of Markets and Fairs in the Municipality of Maputo indi- cates that the licensing of street vending of meals in vehicles and trolleys (two- or four-wheel trailers used to make and sell food) increased from 22 in 2012 to 453 in 2017. These operate for the most part in the KaMpfumu Municipal District. According to officials of that same depart- ment, pressure for new licensing remains high.

According to the data obtained, 50% of farmer households consume two meals and 45% con- sume three meals a day (17_B_MP, n=369). While the number of meals indicates access to food, it contains no information on diet composition or quantities consumed at each meal. 71% of households consider dinner the main meal, arguing that it gives them energy to work the next day (17_B_MP, n= 369). Lack of time as a result of professional activities and lack of financial re- sources to buy prepared food outside the home are influencing factors on the reduction in the number of meals eaten outside the home, especially on weekdays. The whole family is present at dinner, their evening meal. Here they take the opportunity to share the day's events and plan activities for the following day. It is on these occasions that members of the household talk about their day to day needs and concerns, thereby underlining the social importance of joint meals. It can thus be concluded that food is available (some food groups) from production in the

machambas. Vegetables cultivated in urban agriculture are an integral part of the household diet.

Access to the different food groups by producers and their households is limited as a result of the poor diversity of production (which is geared to market demands), lack of good nutrition practic- es (see overcooking of vegetables) and the absence of facilities to store produce after harvesting. The combination of these factors impacts negatively on the household diet. This analysis fits into the FAO findings (2012): the poor food intake is related to lack of production diversity, tenuous physical and financial access to nutritious foods, inadequate nutrition knowledge, constraints that affect the treatment and feeding of children, and women’s work overload.

Training and information

About 83% of producers did not have access to training courses on the importance of nutrition in their diet so far (17_B_MP, n=102). The producers have heard, albeit sporadically, about ways of using fruit to produce jams and juices. Yet almost none of them apply this knowledge due to lack of time. Although the significance of nutrition has been recognised, their priority lies in food and nutritional security, which in turn refers to food availability and access through production and income generation. No one in the agricultural associations is in charge of health and nutrition, as is the case with other sectors such as production and sales. This further inhibits the discussion on

food consumption practices among producers. With the appointment of a focal person for Nutri- tion in the Directorate of Agriculture and Food and Nutrition Security of the City of Maputo (DA- SACM), however, a window of opportunity has opened and will allow for capitalising on and dis- seminating good nutrition practices, thereby contributing to a better use of products grown in the machambas, with the producers themselves as the protagonists.