FRANCISCO DOMÍNGUEZ SERVIÉN,
Artículo 48. Para el Ejercicio Fiscal 2018 se establecen las siguientes disposiciones administrativas y estímulos fiscales:
Ivo Cumbana
The present chapter gives an introduction to Maputo’s food and nutrition security status and looks at the factors influencing food and nutrition security, such as household expenditure and food baskets. It also deals with the topics of malnutrition and health, and describes existing cop- ing strategies.
3.8.1 Food and nutrition security status
The report of the Technical Secretariat for Food and Nutrition Security (SETSAN, 2014) indicated that only half of the Mozambican population had an adequate diet composed of three meals per day and a variety of foods integrating the four food groups (basic foods, food builders, protective foods and energy foods). Not surprisingly, marginal households and low-income families – to which urban farmers belong – represented the groups with the lowest levels of dietary adequacy. According to the same source, chronic food insecurity in the country lies at 24%. In Maputo, it is less than half of that, at 11%. There is, however, a differentiation in the prevalence of food and nutritional insecurity among groups of similar lifestyles (categorised by occupation, gender, age, income…). The highest percentage of moderate or severe food insecurity was shown to be in the group of households whose income source consists of temporary work, food assistance and beg- ging, followed by the group involved in the production and marketing of agricultural and live- stock products. Other vulnerable groups are children under five and women of child-bearing age. For these groups in particular, food and nutrition insecurity is still a public health concern.
Data on malnutrition indicates that 6% of women in Maputo City aged 15-49 years are under- weight as a result of insufficient intake of macro and micro-nutrients, a condition that ultimately leads to chronic malnutrition. According to UNICEF (2017), 23% of children under five years of age suffer from acute or moderate acute malnutrition in Maputo City.
According to the Family Budget Survey 2014/15 (Inquérito ao Orçamento Familiar - IOF), the aver- age caloric intake per capita in the City of Maputo is 755 (down from 1 016 in 2008), while the national average caloric intake per capita is 1 259 (INE, 2015, p.15). FAO (2010) estimates for Mozambique a minimum daily energy requirement (MDER) of 1 800 calories per person per day. The data from the 2014/2015 survey mentioned above is surprisingly low compared to other data quoted in this chapter. We can nevertheless conclude that the average caloric intake in Maputo is below the recommended amount – and if the family survey data is still correct – even below half of this amount (INE, 2015, p.16).
Food and nutrition security (FNS) is also characterised by nutritious food from different food groups: a growing aspect of malnutrition is the imbalanced composition of diets: 23% of women aged 15-49 in Mozambique and 42% in Maputo City were overweight due to excessive consump- tion of sugar and fats, leading to increased instances of obesity (SETSAN, 2014), another form of malnutrition. The growth in obesity rates is reflected by the prevalence of hypertension in the country in the last ten years, which rose from 33% to 40% in 2017, mainly due to poor eating hab- its (excessive consumption of salt, alcoholic drinks and fried foods); tobacco consumption and a sedentary lifestyle, notably in urban areas (Damasceno et al., 2017). Here, urban agriculture and its products can contribute to accessing a broader variety of micronutrient and vitamin-rich foods at affordable prices – for the producing families as well as for their customers.
3.8.2 Factors influencing food and nutrition security
Food and nutrition security is linked to the physical, social and economic access to food. The household income is therefore a crucial factor when it comes to assessing the FNS status of households: urban farmers in Maputo are more likely to be food insecure than urban dwellers with more reliable and better paid jobs. Urban agriculture is nonetheless the main source of in- come for over 11 000 farmers and their households (approximately 5% of the Maputo popula- tion), and an additional source of income or food for another 4% of the city’s inhabitants.
Paganini summarises the role of urban agriculture in household income as follows: “Maputo’s farmers’ motivation to engage in urban agriculture are income (28%); hunger, necessity and pov- erty (16%); farming is their occupation (14%); they feel they have no other option (12%); family tradition (8%) (17_B_MP). (…) Urban agriculture is an activity to make a living within the vulnera- ble communities in the city. Of the interviewed farmers, 76% stated that urban agriculture is their only source of income. For 80% it has been their main source of income for the last five years. While most of the interviewed farmers produce for economic reasons, 94% also consume their own vegetables. 41% sell their products directly from their land to intermediators; others sell on local community markets and in their neighbourhoods (17_B_MP)” (Paganini et al., 2018).
Despite the importance of urban agriculture for household incomes and existing market chan- nels, it cannot guarantee a return on investment due to unpredictable climate events, price in- stability, pests, theft, and the absence of conservation and processing systems. This dilemma pushes farmers into cultivating short-cycle low-cost crops under the assumption that possible losses will have a less damaging effect. Low productivity of vegetables such as tomatoes, cu- cumbers, peppers or Reno potatoes weakens their bargaining power with consumers such as boarding schools or local supermarkets, both of which prefer contracts with suppliers who can guarantee product diversity throughout the year.
Producer incomes fluctuate according to production and harvest periods. In the hot season, par- ticularly between November and April, produce is scarce and crop prices are high, as the harvest is a long way off. In this period most urban farmers have little to sell and thus rarely benefit from higher prices. On the contrary, since their chief products are leafy vegetables that cannot be stored for longer periods of time, they have little or no income and high expenditures. In the cool season from May to October, on the other hand, production is relatively easy and produce abun-
dant. Producers have much to sell, although abundance leads to low prices. In this way, the cli- mate and production cycles impact on producer incomes and expenditure.
The more diverse the crops and the greater the production area, the more harvests and sales can be spread over the year. Storage capacity and the processing/conserving of produce likewise help to reduce the need to sell the entire harvest immediately at unfavourable prices. Low produce diversity and limited options for storing and processing the principal crops (cabbage and lettuce) are therefore obstacles to raising income and/or production. Most farmers are obliged to sell their products at ‘any price’, without even a return on production costs.
For this reason, urban farmers and their households try to diversify the household income (see Chapter 3.4) with public service employment (11%), rural agriculture (9%), informal market sales (7%) and other low-skilled job opportunities (guard, housemaid) as an added source of income. Even in these households, however, income from urban agriculture constitutes 67% of the household income (17_B_MP, n=350, multiple response). In other words, they depend on UA yields for survival. The income obtained is limited by investment costs, the volume of production, the negotiating capacity and the ties established between the producer and the magueva (re- seller), and finally by the oscillation of market prices.
Household expenditures and the food basket
According to the household expenditure survey, food and non-alcoholic beverages account for approximately 36% of the country’s household expenses. Expenditure on food products is more significant in rural (53%) than in urban areas (21%) (INE, 2015).
Regarding expenditure on food products in Maputo, households spend most on cereals and bak- ery products (47%), and on vegetables, potatoes and other tubers (20%). Seafood consumption, including fish, accounts for 11% of total expenditure, the same share as for meat and meat prod- ucts (18_FH_MP). The consumption of milk, dairy products and eggs is quite low in budget terms, representing only 1% of total expenditure. The fact that prices for staples and vegetables per kg are considerably lower than those for animal products indicates that cereals and vegetables are the main source of food for most Maputo City households.
With their income from urban agriculture, more than 63% of producers fail to reach the monthly average income required (7 500 MZN or approx. 107 €) to purchase a basic food basket defined by the Ministry of Health (MISAU) as adequate for a five-member household (SETSAN, 2014). The monthly average income of a third of urban agricultural producers (31%) fails to reach even the minimum wage current in the agricultural sector (3 642 MZN, equivalent to about 52 €).
Urban agriculture represents the main source of income for households engaged in this activity. It is also an additional food source. The contribution of garden products to the household diet should, however, not be overestimated: only 17% of producer households said that most of the food they consume is self-produced, while the remaining 83% buy most of the food they con- sume in their households (18_FH_MP).
Urban production focuses on a few leafy vegetables. These are merely add-ons to the main food groups consumed. Urban agriculture has no comparative advantage when it comes to staple products like maize, rice or wheat. The urban setting does not offer the space or conditions for
grain production. Furthermore, these products are easily processed and transported in bulk over large distances without major quality losses. Hence, large-scale production in rural areas and/or other climate zones will remain people’s staple diet in Maputo and other cities.
At the same time, urban horticulture and small-scale livestock breeding can and do complement and diversify household diets. Home gardens are a key source of household vegetables and a source of animal protein where chickens, ducks or fish are produced. Machambas and quinteiros do not guarantee access to food for producers and their families but are relevant additions to the composition of household diets. That said, neither the production nor the income is – broadly speaking – sufficient to ensure the FNS status of producer households.
Malnutrition and health
Mozambique is one of eight countries worldwide with the highest prevalence of HIV in adults of productive age: 13% of men and 15% of women are infected. In Mozambique, women between 20 and 24 years of age are four times more likely to be infected with HIV than men in the same age group. HIV prevalence in urban areas is substantially higher than in the rural areas (urban: 20% of women and 12% of men; rural: 13% of women and 9% of men) (INE, 2017). The City of Maputo has a prevalence rate of 17% (22% of women and 11% of men). Prevalence in the 15-24 age group in Maputo is 7%. Here too, more women are infected than men (11% women, 2% men).
The high rate of food insecurity in Mozambique is one of the main drivers of high prevalence of HIV infection and its consequences (Banco Mundial, 2008).
People with a HIV infection require considerable strength to combat the disease, notably those undergoing antiviral treatment. Their nutritional status is affected as a result of less food con- sumption, poor nutrient absorption and metabolic alterations lead to the typical weight loss ob- served in HIV patients. Malnutrition prior to HIV infection aggravates the impact of the disease on the human organism, since the virus is then attacking an already weakened immune system. The HIV incidence is higher in households with low formal education and low incomes (INE, 2017), burdening these families with enormous debts.
Families involved in agricultural production reduce their areas of cultivation and grow crops that are less labour-intensive (FAO, 2007). Association farmers with health problems, including HIV, find it difficult to carry out their farming activities due to exposure to the sun and the physically demanding tasks involved. They therefore tend to reduce their workload in the fields, which in turn leads to lower productivity, less income, and a smaller contribution to the nutrition needs of the affected households.
The food and nutrition insecurity of urban farmer households exposes them to the risks and ad- verse effects of HIV. 36% of farmers interviewed mentioned that their families had reduced the consumption of specific products due to limited resources. 15% of families spoke of food cut- backs for financial reasons. In the case of health problems, these families are even more exposed to nutrition hardships (18_FH_MP).
Farmer associations have carried out a number of activities to promote health in general and sensitise people to HIV/AIDS prevention in particular. Evidence of these interventions, e.g., the correct use of food to enhance the nutritional status of households, was not available. It is im- portant therefore that a component dealing with the nutrition education of urban farmers (in- cluding HIV/AIDS) be integrated into existing health programmes. An increase in productivity and the diversification of agricultural production are further aspects vital to improving the nutri- tion diets of the households concerned.
Coping strategies
The HFIAS (Household Food Insecurity Access Scale) indicator developed by the Food and Nutri- tion Security Technical Assistance project to measure the degree of Food Insecurity in the four weeks prior to a survey shows that 46% of households were unable to eat the kind of food they would like due to lack of resources. 36% of households said their food variety was limited for the same reason. 15% of households spoke of food restrictions for financial reasons. According to these responses, only a third (34%) of the surveyed households were in Food Security. Of the remaining households:
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45% were in average food insecurity – households that were anxious about not having enough food to eat regularly (Coates et.al., 2007);▪
13% were in moderate food insecurity – households concerned about having food to eat, even ‘sacrificing, often, the quality or type of food’ and that considered their one-sided diet ‘monotonous’ (Coates et.al., 2007);▪
8% were in severe food insecurity-households that frequently had no food for meals. If and when they do, the amount is so small that household members suffer from severe deficiencies (Coates et.al., 2007) (18_HFIAS_MP).Most households face some kind of restriction in terms of availability and/or access to food. Alt- hough these figures are worrying, they are better than the country’s average.
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2012) programme for Mozambique, starch-rich cereals, roots and tubers make up almost 80% of the energy consumed in the diet. As stated earlier (see Chapter 3.1), much of this produce is imported and liable to price volatility due to oil price fluctuations, stock market speculation with staple foods, and the eco- nomic dynamics of the producing countries. A study by de Brito et al. (2015) found that due to the rise in prices for basic food products and the depreciation of the Metical, families in some neighbourhoods of Maputo opt:
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To eliminate goods considered low priority or significantly reduce consumption frequency (chicken, eggs, other foods required for a balanced diet);▪
To reduce the number of meals a day;▪
To limit the composition of their meals when they have children under five years of age, basically consuming rice and cornmeal with no accompaniment (sauce or curry).Urban agriculture cannot substitute rural production. It does generate income, however, allowing families to be a little more resilient to price increases and to add products to the household diet that reduces their dependency on food purchases.
Thus, although 70% of UA producers are optimistic about the future of UA in terms of food avail- ability and income, evidence shows the vulnerability of households to food and nutritional inse- curity (17_B_MP, n=56). This vulnerability is aggravated by the frequent need for other household members to carry out similarly precarious professional activities (e.g., informal trade, guards). Despite the goodwill of producers, they face tough obstacles in their production endeavour to ensure food and nutrition security. Mosca et al. (2013; in Ibraimo, 2017) show that if employment alternatives to urban agriculture and its attendant vulnerability were to arise, the actors involved in production would favour wage labour over their agricultural activities.
Conclusion
The activities of urban farmers contribute substantially to household incomes (see Chapter 3.5) and the diversity of their household diet. Urban production thus serves economic and physical access (produce and income) and can contribute to ‘social access’ (diet composition, preparation techniques to preserve nutrients). The quality of the produce in terms of safety and diversity (un- inhibited treatment with pesticides, monoculture – see Chapter 3.3) leaves room for improve- ment. So does the limited knowledge on good and nutritious food, on food preparation and food consumption. The organisational structures of producers and their supporting bodies (extension services and several NGOs) are in place to find solutions to these bottlenecks and facilitate a more positive impact on the nutritional status of both producers and their customers. A look at pathways and structures for the dissemination of knowledge and innovation and consequently the introduction of good practice in the various domains related to urban agriculture serves to identify the most suitable tools for communication.