Since it would not have been feasible to analyse every single subtitle within such a holistic methodology, all subtitles were considered for analysis (there was not a
Figure has been removed due to Copyright restrictions
focus on selected scenes), but only those particularly relevant to the discussion of language, identity, and socio-political messages in the case study films were analysed in-depth as part of this thesis. The selection of subtitles for close study was guided by the macro contextual analysis of each film, which revealed key themes as highlighted in the paratexts and featured in the films. Strand writes about Entre les murs (Cantet, 2008) and L’esquive (Kechiche, 2003), two films which deal with representations of authority and the education system as it relates to the banlieusards in France, noting that the two ‘are clearly playing an important role in provoking a national reconsideration of, to quote Doran again, “what it means to speak, and to be, French”’.259 Since this genre of French cinema
presents socio-political messages concerning life in the banlieues, and these socio- political messages are intrinsically linked to the identity of those living in these areas and represented on screen, the representation of identity and key themes are arguably both linked, and important features to be examined in the subtitling of the genre.
It would be useful here to consider Vanoye’s work on the horizontal and vertical dimensions of film dialogue. Remael notes
As Vanoye (1985:116) has pointed out, film dialogue, like theatre dialogue, always functions on two levels. The interaction between the characters is the "horizontal" level of communication, whereas the interaction between film and audience, the storytelling proper, constitutes the "vertical level" of communication.260
This is an important consideration in the study of subtitled films, and supports the idea behind the methodology developed in this thesis. The ‘horizontal’ communication can serve to make the action seem realistic or believable, and the ‘vertical’ communication is important in terms of ‘storytelling’ as Remael notes above. This can help to explain the link between the macro- and micro-contextual analysis undertaken as part of this methodology. The vertical communication could also encompass the themes and issues presented by the director; in the case of banlieue film, in order to highlight aspects of life in the banlieue, for instance.
259 Dana Strand, ‘Être et Parler: Being and Speaking French in Abdellatif Kechiche’s L’Esquive (2004) and Laurent Cantet’s Entre Les Murs (2008)’, Studies in French Cinema, 9.3 (2009), 259–72 (p. 271).
260 Aline Remael, ‘Mainstream Narrative Film Dialogue and Subtitling: A Case Study of Mike Leigh’s “Secrets & Lies” (1996)’, The Translator, 9.2 (2003), 225–47 (p. 227)
The macro-contextual analysis revealed certain key aspects of the films in terms of plot, and in terms of the directors’ goals in making the film. These aspects can be traced through into the characters’ dialogue and examined in relation to the vertical communication in the subtitled version of the film. This methodology, through considering the interaction between characters, but also between the director and the viewer, examines the subtitled films in terms of both of the above-mentioned dimensions of film dialogue.
In terms of the analysis of SLD and TL Subtitle together, the notion of ‘diagonal translation’ as put forward by Gottlieb highlights the move from the oral to written forms of language in interlingual subtitling. Non-standard language, and particularly the variety represented in banlieue films is primarily spoken, and appears in writing in very few places.261 Thus, some shift in translation here is
arguably inevitable, particularly when we consider that subtitlers are discouraged from employing uncommon non-standard vocabulary, grammar and spelling in subtitles.262 The written subtitles were examined in terms of how far they feature
unfamiliar varieties of language, for example, slang and abbreviations, or phonetic spellings of spoken varieties of English.
Other strategies for conveying the specific variety of language used by the characters in the subtitles were also examined. This analysis aimed to examine the subtitling of banlieue film in a way that accounted for the specificities of dealing with audiovisual texts, and which places the analysis within the cultural context of reception, whilst considering the subtitles for the whole film, rather than selected extracts. As Remael notes, 'Dialogue works sequentially and is both context-dependent (it builds on previous turns) and context-renewing (it adds something to the previous turn).'263 Thus the analysis will consider the subtitling
of certain key features across the films, and occurrences and translations of some of these have been mapped out throughout the films. In order to adequately examine the subtitles and how they represent identity, the following additional
261 With the exception of some literary works, such as Faïza Guène, Kiffe Kiffe Demain, Le Livre de Poche, 30379 (Paris: Hachette littratures, 2004). Or Mohammed Dib, ‘Le Prophète’, in Comme
Un Bruit d’abeilles. (Albin Michel, 2001), pp. 186–224.
262 See, for example, Carroll and Ivarsson.
263 Aline Remael, ‘A place for film dialogue analysis in subtitling courses’, in Topics in audiovisual
translation, ed. by Pilar Orero, Benjamins translation library, 56 (Amsterdam: John Benjamins
frameworks and theories were applied to the micro analysis of subtitlesin the films.
Register
Register is a particularly interesting aspect of the translation of banlieue film given the significance of the langage de banlieue as a tool for the banlieusards; a tool which they wield with great skill, either to express frustration and resistance, or to exclude ‘outsiders’ from their discussions.264 Analysis of the subtitles in
relation to register was undertaken with reference both to Newmark’s scale of formality, and Halliday’s field, tenor and mode.265 I used Newmark’s scale of
formality in an attempt to classify lexical items in the SLD and subtitles, and this allowed for an examination of the extent to which lexical items ‘match the register expectations of their prospective receivers’ as Baker suggests the goal should be.266 Halliday’s field, tenor and mode assisted in understanding the
significance of language use in context, and how changes in context resulted in shifts in register.
In L’esquive for example, the importance of performance, language and identity mean that register shifts can drive the plot, and they convey a great deal of information about characters in the film. They therefore play a key role in terms of both horizontal and vertical communication within the film. Register shifts are an important factor in all banlieue films; they are instances in which additional information is conveyed through a change in a character’s use of language. This means that they may demonstrate a change in atmosphere, important information about the relationship between two characters, or about whether or not a character is at ease in a particular situation.
Register and dialect are both important considerations in the subtitling of the
langage de banlieue. As Halliday notes, the two features are closely linked:
264 Goudaillier, p. 10; Duchêne, p. 35.
265 Peter Newmark, A Textbook of Translation (New York ; London: Prentice-Hall International, 1988), p. 14; Halliday, ‘Language as Social Semiotic’, p. 362.
266 Mona Baker, In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation, 2nd ed (London: Routledge, 2011), p. 14.
…dialect variation expresses the diversity of social structures (social hierarchies of all kinds), while register variation expresses the
diversity of social processes […] the two are interconnected –what we do is affected by who we are […] The registers a person has access to are a function of his place in the social structure; and a switch of register may entail a switch of dialect.267
So, the characters in banlieue film usually have similar dialects as they have a comparable social status. Their social status means they often find themselves communicating in similar situations and involved in similar processes. When the inhabitants of the banlieue are communicating with people from outside the community, they switch to more standard language, as can be seen in La squale, where the girls switch register when attending a beauty shop in central Paris. This can also be related to the list of themes Goudaillier highlights in the critical introduction to his Dictionnaire du français contemporain des cités. He notes that since they are often involved in ‘le traffic […] la drogue […] les arnaques […]’, for example, the banlieusards have a large vocabulary related to these topics.268
Similarly, their reappropriated terms for referring to race and religion reflect their social circles, in which their peers come from different backgrounds and have different religions as noted by Doran.269 However, these different ‘processes’
sometimes require different registers; the youths will speak differently to figures of authority, such as teachers or the police than to their peers, for example.270
This can be linked to the origins of verlan as a code language; certainly, both Duchêne and Goudaillier affirm the ‘cryptic’ function of verlan.271
Halliday suggests that in order to determine register, one must consider ‘field’, ‘tenor’, and ‘mode’: what is happening, who is speaking, and the channel of communication respectively.272 When there is a change in one or more of these
factors, there is often a shift in register to suit the new situation or relationship. As Halliday notes above, this may or may not involve a change in dialect, though
267 M. A. K. Halliday, ‘“Introduction”, Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning’, in The Communication Theory Reader, ed. by Paul Cobley, 1996, pp. 88–93 (p. 90).
268 Goudaillier, p. 16. 269 Doran, p. 503.
270 Lepoutre notes, for instance, his pleasant surprise at the students’ verlanisation of his name to
vid’da.
271 Goudaillier, p. 14; Duchêne, p. 35..
those shifts that do involve a change in dialect are perhaps the most obvious given that this can involve a change in grammar, lexicon and pronunciation. Particularly in the case of banlieue film, register shifts can also demonstrate the youths’ control over and awareness of their language. These register shifts were therefore carefully considered in the analysis; field, tenor and mode were be examined in both SLD and TL subtitle in order to understand the reason for the register shift, and whether or not this was reflected in translation.