Circuitos

The Smith and Rhodes’ (2015) study noted above, from a micro level exploration of meaning, also showed an association between phenomenological and existential perspectives on meaning. In order to address meaning from existential perspectives, the term macro is used. Here, meanings associated with macro perspectives refer to, such things as purposes in life, order, and reason for existence (Reker & Chamberlain, 2000). These also connect to the fifth level of “existential (purpose)” in Smith’s (2018, p. 3) typology of meaning, and “more abstract” (Vos, 2018, p. 68) types of meaning.

Philosophically, existentialists tend to be interested in ‘human freedom’ and ‘freedom of choice’ (Warnock, 1970, p.1). Existential meaning in psychological research generally focuses on qualitative aspects of human meaning “that makes the human being human” (Yalom, 1980, p.18). In particular, the focus tends to be on ultimate

existential concerns, such as death, freedom, isolation, choice, and meaninglessness (Reynolds, 2006; Yalom, 1980). These are also viewed from life span developmental aspects of human beings (Reker & Chamberlain, 2000), and a life from birth to death (Heidegger, 1927/1962).

One of the main features underlying existential concepts is that human beings exist in a given world, at a given time, within certain limitations (Frankl, 1946/2004; Yalom, 1980). Existential meaning evolves particularly when one’s beliefs are in a

confrontation with the meaning making of one’s given existence (Yalom, 1980). And because life has finitude and there are things that we cannot change, “our task is to make something of what we have been given” (van Deurzen and Adams, 2011, p. 20).

From this perspective, a renowned existential view is that of Frankl (1946/2004), who postulates the concept of “will to meaning,” meaning “the striving to find a concrete meaning in personal existence” (p. 106). He points to the notion that awareness of and choice made in adversity leads a person to accept that adversity, and that having responsibility for their choice enables the person to live their own life meaningfully.

This is further captured by Frankl (1946/2004) when he refers to Nietzsche’s quote:

“he [or she] who has a why to live for can bear with almost any how” (p. 84).

Psychological research considering existential perspectives appears to tackle an understanding of how violations of meanings are restored, and have an impact on, for example, psychological well-being (Shmotkin & Shrira, 2012), in contrast to

subjective well-being. Ryff (1989) postulated a model of psychological well-being drawn on an eudemonic perspective to understand positive human functioning. It has been developed as the Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWB: Ryff & Singer, 2008;

Ryff, 2014), and looks into six dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relations, personal growth, purpose in life, mastery and autonomy.

Scrignaro et al. (2015) used a cross-sectional design to examine meaning associated with the adverse experiences of 266 cancer patients. Questionnaire based self-report measures and items were used to examine personal meaning restorations, while

eudaimonic well-being was assessed by using the PWB. Participants were asked to rate on a 6-point Likert scale (completely disagree = 1, to completely agree = 6), with a

high score indicating the person to be “healthy, well, and fully functioning” (Ryff &

Singer, 2008, p. 19). The main results showed poor eudaimonic well-being, and anxiousness and hopelessness were found in the participants who gained high scores for the search for meaning. The authors point out the importance of success in meaning making (resulting in psychological adjustment) for individuals suffering from

adversity. Although PWB has been developed to examine different dimensions that are importantly associated with personal meaning making in a given situation or

environment, they seem to lack a definition, for example, of the meaning cancer

patients make of their adversity, and how individuals perceive a sense of self in finding (or not finding) meaning in their lives.

While a number of questionnaires that have been used and developed in meaning oriented research are identified (see Vos, 2018, p. 112), the meaning of meaning for people who are questioning life itself or facing challenges of existential concern can be better researched by also taking the value of qualitative experiential perspectives into account. Given this, a macro level investigation of meaning highlights the importance of understanding ways of coping when one’s search for meaning in a given world needs to be redirected.

2.3.6 Summary

This section has examined different perspectives on meaning and meaning research by looking at four broadly divided aspects. Firstly, cognitive and social perspectives on meaning were discussed. Within cognitive perspectives, the subjective meaning of words through semantic concepts was looked at, followed by focus on appraisal and adjustment processes with regard to meaning making. From social psychological perspectives, acknowledging the need of cognitive systems, which facilitate

interpretation and expression of meaning, concepts that emphasise the importance of contextual associations to personal meaning making were highlighted. Cognition, such as belief, was also referred to as a conceptual foundation towards intrapersonally and interpersonally related meaning making constructions. Social psychological

approaches to meaning research seem to be oriented by social cognition.

Secondly, positive and humanistic perspectives on meaning were examined. Generally, research underpins these perspectives by looking at meaning beyond cognitive

processing, and so is concerned with meaning and its association with the self. The main conceptual differences seem to be that the former conceptualises happiness (positives) as a key feature in making meaningful life, since the research shows its interest in the role of meaning on subjective well-being, while the latter emphasises self-fulfilment and self-actualisation, as it looks into meaning as a motivational force towards actualising one’s potential. Meaning has tended to be measured through questionnaire-based surveys, and therefore, approaches are mainly carried out and studied under mainstream traditions.

Thirdly, at a micro level exploration of meaning, phenomenologically oriented concepts and research were introduced. Here, the importance of understanding the experiential meaning a person perceives was discussed from the view that people are being-in-the world. As an example, a meaning-centred phenomenological study was introduced, linking meanings and personal lived experience. More will be discussed on phenomenological perspectives in Chapter 3 of this thesis.

Finally, at a macro level investigation, existential perspectives on meaning were discussed. Macro here means to refer to bigger meanings that could be, for example, purposes in life and connectedness with the world, with existential emphasis on experiential meanings in givens. Existential meaning, therefore, evolves when an individual faces a confrontation with the self and their given world, and tends to be involved with the quest for meaning in life. Given the complex nature of psychological research on meaning, there seems to be the need to develop approaches that investigate both the personal and interpersonal aspects underlying meaning in life from both qualitatively and quantitatively oriented perspectives.

2.4 Midlife and involuntary childlessness: What is known about women