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There are as many ways of transmitting, teaching, and learning music as there are musics (Jorgensen, 1997). Nevertheless, the formal, informal, non-formal and ‘non- Western’ typologies of music pedagogy are commonly used to analyse approaches to music-making, and will be used as lenses to consider musical teaching, learning and transmission in the first part of this chapter. This discussion of pedagogical approaches will inform Chapter 6, in which the roles of teacher and learner at DISS will be analysed in more detail and with relation to the specific teaching and learning community in residence. Since music at Dartington is largely transmitted through notation, my analysis of musical transmission also considers the use of musical scores, which tend to be a point of reference for music-making at DISS. I will consider how scores are used where relevant, and the effects of their absence, or near absence, on DISS participants where this is the case.

Formal, informal, non-formal and ‘non-Western’ typologies of musical learning

Learning in the classical music tradition was once perceived as limited to ‘sequenced, methodical exposure to music teaching within a formal setting’ (Folkestad, 2006; 135), but research into informal learning over the last two decades (Green, 2002; 2008) has illustrated that music learning can happen anywhere and at any point in the life course (Dabback, 2008). Merriam (1964) encompasses the whole of this process of musical learning within the term ‘enculturation’, an idea shared by Green (2002). He divides the process into three stages: socialization (social learning in the early years of life), education (equipping individuals to take their place in society through both formally and informally directed learning) and schooling (‘restricted’ (146), specific, and

specialised in location and delivery). Jorgensen (1997) presents an alternative model in which enculturation, founded in the relationship between music and its culture, is one of five categories of musical learning; the others are schooling (socially located and motivated), training (procedural knowledge and practices), socialization (inculcation of beliefs, values and mores in the members of social groups), and education (a lifelong process involved in bringing out the individual’s potential). Jorgensen’s more flexible approach seems applicable to the learner experience at DISS, which offers many

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opportunities to explore alternative and new versions of each of the categories of learning she identifies. Aspects of musical learning from each of these perspectives will be considered in this and the subsequent chapter; I begin the discussion by examining formal, informal, non-formal and non-Western pedagogical approaches.

Formal teaching and learning

Broadly speaking, formal teaching and learning takes place in schools, universities and colleges or through private instrumental tuition at home; for many DISS residents it informs the majority of their past and present music-making experiences. Formal teaching is planned, intentional, and may or may not result in the desired learning. Learners may aspire to achieve mastery through sequenced and assessed activities, with clear progression to accreditation and expertise. In the UK, this type of teaching has traditionally focused on the classical music canon, with notation therefore playing a central role. There is an element of competition with peers which may be

exemplified in results of formal testing. Ownership over the process resides with the teacher; although the learner might be considered to own the end product concerning musical skills learned, content and delivery is determined by the teacher in hierarchical relationships with the learner.

Much of the musical transmission at DISS has its roots in a formal teaching approach, given the prevalence of the classical canon and background of many of the residents (both teachers and learners). As will be seen later though, pedagogy at DISS often combines aspects of formal, informal and non-formal approaches; observed instances of formal teaching methods in their most conventional form were rarer. It is notable that when these were seen, they were delivered by tutors whose everyday music lives were located in a school environment. These formal approaches were observed in terms of relationships with the learners, attitudes towards the ‘breaking down’ of musical learning, and concepts of assessment.

Although teaching in a group situation, Dylan’s approach seemed closer to the individual instrumental lesson which plays a significant role in his musical working life. I considered that his class was conducted as

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…very much a lesson – all directed towards the pupils not the group although some comments are directed more to the group. Very clear ideas about what to say – talking about phrasing/articulation etc. Quite instructive re how to do it.

Clarinet workshop, 21.8.13

In addressing his observations ‘towards the pupils’ and adopting an ‘instructive’ approach to pedagogy, Dylan situates his teaching firmly in the formal approach which characterises his regular teaching work. Rhona, teaching a sight-reading class aimed at developing notation skills for adult learners, had adopted a structured, formal

approach to the planning and delivery of her course; worksheets were used and referred back to, her session clearly had a pre-formed plan, and the learning of each member of the group was encouraged through the use of games and exercises requiring everyone to participate. Again, she spends her professional life working within the formal education system, and this would appear to have informed her teaching of this course. I myself participated in a composition course intended for school music teachers; my field notes following the final session observe that

We go through the list of what we wanted to achieve in the week to see if we’d made any progress – most people agree that we’ve met all the objectives we wanted to.

FN, 2.8.12

This level of formal reflection on progress, though typical of formal pedagogical approaches, was unfamiliar to me in a DISS context, although would have been very familiar to the course participants – and perhaps also to the tutor, whose regular professional role was as a teacher of composition in a conservatoire.

As well as informing pedagogical approaches, a primarily ‘formal’ musical background appeared to influence perspectives on the purposes of music education. Both Philip and Dylan work primarily with young people in school environments and perceived an important aspect of their role as ‘steering’ young people towards an appropriate musical career, alongside instilling a lifelong love of music-making:

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They’re not necessarily professional musicians in the making because some of them go off to do other things – so you’re part of the process that helps them sort of discover themselves musically, or that music is perhaps something to be kept as a hobby for them.

Philip, tutor

There are some who are just doing it for fun and that’s got its own challenges to … make them enthusiastic about playing in the hope that they’ll stick with their playing all the way through their life, even if they’re a doctor or a banker or whatever it might be, that they can have a lot of social interaction with other musicians and enjoy a wide range of repertoire.

Dylan, tutor

Although described in a formal school context, this attitude towards teaching is perhaps closest to what is appropriate at DISS, where tutors juggle varied aspirations amongst learners, but the majority of residents represent the adult embodiment of the lifelong musical habits Philip and Dylan seek to foster. This consideration of the future musical lives of learners reflects the sequenced, assessed characteristics of formal learning detailed above.

Informal teaching and learning

Informal learning is not timetabled or necessarily associated with specific physical contexts, exemplified recently by the spaces for learning enabled by online music sharing and co-creation (Waldron, 2012; Kenny, 2013; Kladder, 2016). It is ‘sociable’ learning, which might occur even in the broader framework of a formal learning situation; Green (2002) highlights the importance of friendship relationships in informal learning amongst young popular musicians. It is guided by interactions

between those making music and is holistic in its approach to repertoire (Green, 2002), often starting from the ‘whole piece’ rather than systematically breaking down the musical elements and techniques required. In popular music, folk and jazz settings, notation is rarely used; informal classical music-making may or may not use notation. Ownership resides with the group and its members; this is particularly important

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regarding repertoire selection where choices are guided entirely by the group (Green, 2002). Learning may occur as a function of a broader social or musical situation, rather than being the intended outcome. Veblen (2012) categorises this learning as

unsystematic, unpurposeful, incidental, or accidental; I would argue, like Green (2002), that there is more structure than may be immediately apparent in many informal music-making situations, and that the ‘serious leisure’ (Stebbins, 2007) approach of the participants imposes system and structure on individual activities. Informal learning in tends to have become associated with musics that are largely or completely

transmitted without notation. However, there is no necessary connection – as in fact Green (2014) points out, it is perfectly possible to learn classical music informally, and without notation, and equally possible to learn popular music formally, with notation. In each case, the musical product may not be considered ‘authentic’ to the genre in question, but this does not preclude learning in this way.

Much of the learning at DISS is informal or incidental and does involve ear playing. This kind of learning may occur during impromptu music making outside the official course sessions, as described by Alan:

I stay [after the course] to do some jazz practice on the Steinway. C. stays as well and plays through a few numbers on guitar with me. Then he teaches me something about the Pinker Blues chords and the altered scale and modal harmony. There is a lot to take in, but I am really happy for this impromptu session. It helps to build up my jazz confidence.

Alan, older resident, DD

This episode demonstrates how informal learning scenarios often contain

characteristics of more formal approaches; both participants show here how a ‘serious leisure’ mentality lends itself to structured teaching and learning of new material in an impromptu session. Alan’s diary often refers to how he continues his music-making between classes; he books practice rooms, finds other people to make music with, and reflects on his learning in various contexts. As a long-term attendee, his approach to musical learning at DISS exemplifies how to capitalise on the formal and informal learning opportunities available. The peer learning enabled by this informal music- making is an important feature of the DISS experience, where learning might consist of

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direct peer-to-peer instruction as above, or may occur through more informal exchanges, often simply affirmation through comments on progress made:

Big moment for me today in a voice workshop. My friend said, ‘She began to excavate your real voice’ in it. […] Sang again in voice class and 3 people came up to me afterwards to tell me to keep studying’ how much they’d enjoyed it etc. Very encouraging – I will try to keep going.

Stella, houseparent, DD

Learning also occurs by listening, either to other course participants being taught, or to performances. In many cases this occurs during taught sessions of courses, but the multiple roles played at DISS means that learners can often also hear their tutors performing during the evening concerts. This leads to a more intense and analytical learning relationship with the repertoire studied, as described by Doreen and Jennifer, in this case with notation being present:

We’re working on the Handel sonata that they played so we were watching that very closely and the trio sonata from the Musical Offering, the particular repertoire was particularly interesting, sort of listening out for how are they doing certain things … it feels like ‘oh my gosh we can’t play it as well as they did’ but we’ve got lots of ideas.

Doreen, older resident

It was interesting, because we can see the things that they talk to us about, the phrasing and the way that they play as a band together, and also they were doing some of the music we’ve been working on so it was really nice to hear that played.

Jennifer, younger resident

As Doreen mentioned, differences in musical capability may be highlighted by this scenario, but it also gives residents an opportunity to hear the repertoire they are working on played by those who may be more expert than them. Grace illustrates

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another perspective on how working formally with those at a different level can lead to informal learning, as she describes playing in a string quartet:

Two of them were music students and two of us were amateurs, it was interesting, because they were obviously good players but actually it was the first time they’d ever actually been a lead violinist … there was sort of a few of them getting coached in how to actually be the leader of a group, so that was kind of interesting, the dynamic, you could see that we were all learning something, and they were also contributing titbits as well, sort of how to play and things.

Grace, younger resident

In this scenario, formal and informal learning are blended; the ‘music students’ who are ‘good players’ are able to contribute informal technical advice to the ‘amateurs’, whilst they are also challenged through more formal teaching about the leadership role.

Non-formal teaching and learning

Non-formal teaching and learning occurs in settings such as adult education colleges, community groups, and outreach programmes. Although it may be systematic and planned, the absence of accreditation, assessment processes and regulation is an important differentiation from formal contexts (Veblen, 2012). The musical leader’s role is to enable rather than to lead (Mok, 2010), and teaching is not driven by broader policies and programmes but responsive to the particular needs of the learner(s). Teaching and learning is often through oral/aural transmission, with notation as a supportive tool. Participants may focus more on process than product, and their conscious intentions for structured musical learning may vary. When performance plays a role as an outcome, it is concerned more with sharing achievement than inviting criticism. Ownership resides primarily with the learner due to the increased focus on playing music and the voluntary nature of participation (Reddy, 2003, cited in Mok, 2010). Where ownership is at a higher level than the individual, it resides with institutions that are more community than state focused, or with directors that are

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answerable to the members of their groups. Mok (2010) identifies community music as an important context for non-formal learning, describing it as lifelong learning that has a dual function of community development and personal growth. Importantly, Mok states that musical teaching and learning in a community context should not be a ‘collage’ of different music-making practices, but should consider the ‘historical, cultural and personal backgrounds of the different musical groups within that community’ (71).

In many ways this approach to musical transmission has the most commonality with the teaching and learning taking place at DISS, as will be explored in more detail in Chapter 6, where a DISS pedagogy is considered; the overlap between community music practices and the DISS context will also be examined in Chapter 9 as part of a broader discussion of musical inclusion. There are also many resonances between non- formal approaches and the pedagogies typified by ‘non-Western’ musics and their transmission, which will now be discussed.

‘Non-Western’ musics

As Toner and Wild state, ‘World music’ is ‘a marketing category, a bin in your local record store’ (Toner & Wild, 2004; 96), relegating the musics of the majority of the world’s population to a single category. An alternative definition for these musics is ‘non-Western’, which risks casting them in an extreme relationship to the ‘canon’, ‘a selective and exclusive tradition that that embodies certain values, notably Western ideals and standards of truth and beauty’ (Thompson, 2002; 16). I prefer this term however to ‘world music’, so am using it to refer to gamelan, West African drumming, mbira and samba band courses at DISS, whilst acknowledging that is imperfect in its definition. These musics do not tend to use written notation – and when they do, it is not in the Western classical music tradition.

Non-Western musics were first included at DISS under the influence of Jack Dobbs, Director of Music at DCA and a pioneer in the inclusion of genres beyond classical music in tertiary music programmes.29 _{Dobbs wanted to open the minds of}

29 _{DCA’s first degree programme, a combined course in Music and English instigated in 1967, was the}

first UK music undergraduate programme to include genres outside Western Art Music as part of the core curriculum; initially sitar and table, building on Dartington’s existing connections with India,

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British young people to the cultures of those arriving in the country, and to free them from staff notation, thereby enhancing aural and improvisatory skills. Cameron, teaching mbira at DISS, considered that the inclusion of non-Western musics served a similar purpose, reflecting on how it could address the ‘elitism’ of classical music at DISS:

You look at Dartington International Summer School which is about classical music, it becomes elite as well, but when the Dartington summer school invites people like me and of course [Tony] with his knowledge of Ghanaian, West African drumming, it’s saying ‘let’s accommodate what is in Britain’, because mbira is here … so let’s have classical musicians looking at other genres of music, coming from different cultures, and of course classical musicians are human beings like anybody else, they are fascinated by the idea of the mbira and the singing in a different language, so I have to say thank you to Dartington International Summer School, they are accommodating the culture of what is Britain.

Cameron, tutor

His description also contains unconscious acknowledgement of hierarchical

relationships between genres; his use of the word ‘accommodate’ suggests a rather condescending relationship, and the characterisation of the mbira as ‘fascinating’ seems to suggest an exotic, ‘othered’, role for his music-making, a tension which will be explored in more detail later.

Dobbs also considered that non-Western musics fitted DCA’s ethos of practical music making and music within a community setting, and that playing this music would allow the students to further their understanding of the ways in which it influenced contemporary Western composers. His overall rationale for and expectations from the