Variables del Estudio

From birth, children imitate what they see and hear. Claxton suggests that, by modelling ‘how to talk like the grown-ups around them’, children are ‘unwittingly and without conscious effort, absorbing the values, habits, beliefs and understanding of their cultural world’ (Claxton, 2008: 102). Children carry this natural way of learning into formal learning situations, and instrumental music teachers capitalise heavily on this natural instinct. As a useful instrumental teaching strategy, modelling is characterised in two ways. Firstly, it is a means of simply providing pupils with an aural and/or visual physical demonstration of instrumental competence in order to nurture an embodied understanding of instrumental performance (Elliot, 1995: 58). Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, it is a means of modelling the act of learning itself, in other words, the approach to problem solving (Claxton, 2008: 110).

2.9.3.1 Learning to notice

In considering the various factors that spur pupil success, imitation and modelling (demonstration) have been explored during group learning, and studies show that pupils respond in a variety of ways (Sang, 1987; Duerksen, 1972). Whilst no conclusive evidence supports a theory that superior modelling results in technical and general performance improvement, it has been established that using various forms of modelling does impact positively (Meissner, 2017; McPhail, 2013; Burwell, 2005; Anderson, 1981; Sang, 1987; Zucher, 1972; Duerksen, 1972). Whether modelling comes from the teacher, peers, or digital recordings, the important factor is that it provides an opportunity to create new reference points. Although receiving verbal commands (Duerksen, 1972) and observing demonstrations are beneficial (Badets, Blandin & Shea, 2006), Badets, Blandin and Shea (2006) have shown that the utility of observation increases when pupils are given additional opportunities to explore, imitate and practise what they have observed. Even though little communication may occur, complex musical skills can be learned better through the use of observation and imitation because images assist the silent process of transferring and applying observed knowledge during attempts to correct and improve (Wulf & Shea, 2002).

Since both sports and playing an instrument are physical pursuits, many interesting parallels can be drawn, but will not be discussed in detail here. The reader could refer to Timothy Gallwey’s (1979) book, The Inner Game of Tennis, and view his advice analogously to the study of an instrument; in particular his advice on modelling to help improve skills.3 _{Much of the modelling discussed by Gallwey relates to imitating the} world-class players. However, research investigating the motor skill development of the athlete has found that, when the learner uses a model, the skill level of the model is not necessarily the most important factor for some level of learning to occur (McCullagh & Meyer, 1997; Lee & White, 1990). Practice at detecting and correcting errors using models of a lesser level of expertise (Lee & White, 1990) was still advantageous to learning, even if those errors were easily detectable (Black & Wright, 2000). Despite the undisputed importance of modelling the top exponents, the research just mentioned implies that the instrumental teacher could easily and profitably broaden their strategy to include peer collaboration and audio-visual technology. These additional approaches allow pupils to rotate between the roles of model and the reflective observer, thus increasing the potential opportunities for learning.

2.9.3.2 Teacher-pupil dialogue

Having just discussed the type of modelling that simply provides a skill demonstration for the pupil to imitate, this study stresses the importance of modelling how to learn. The relationship between the instrumental teacher and the pupil during the one-to-one instrumental lesson is filled with both verbal and non-verbal communication, and this establishes a type of social intelligence between them which influences the way they each think and act (Juchniewicz, 2010; Hamann, Lineburgh & Pauls, 1998; Hamann, 1995). Establishing and maintaining a healthy working relationship is something I treat with great sensitivity throughout the enquiry because it is understood that rich and reflective dialogue is more likely to materialise from a healthy teacher-pupil relationship. Discussing the importance of communication, Claxton (2008) postulates that dialogue stimulates pupils to look and think from different perspectives. This engagement induces actions that develop the ability to verbalise the processes being used when learning and thinking (Claxton, 2008: 107). This enquiry supports and draws on Flusser’s (2000: 43) argument, that if teachers recognise, cultivate, and interact with their pupils’ ‘aesthetic choices and opinions as well as their commitment’ in synergistic

identity, and teachers are no longer mere ‘information depositors’ (p. 49). In this enquiry I seek to establish a teaching and learning environment rich in dialogue, where both the teacher and pupil feel safe to share and discuss their opinions and feelings. Working relationships, that are genuine and supportive of both the teacher and pupil identity, suggest an empowering atmosphere of freedom to actively learn together in deep, meaningful and creative ways (Flusser, 2000).

2.9.3.3 Questioning, curiosity and the critical mind

Put questions within [the child’s] reach and let him solve them himself. Let him know nothing because you have told him, but because he has learned it for himself. (Rousseau, 1762:142)

Since the Socratic dialogues, enquiry has been accepted as an effective pedagogical strategy. Asking pupils questions is a means to elicit responses that provide insight into their perspective and way of thinking, and can be an important aid in developing critical thinking (Claxton & Carr, 2004; Goolsby, 1996). Questioning invites the pupil to respond and think in generalities or specifically about themselves, including how they might fit into the environment of learning (Claxton et al., 2011). While music teachers who integrate methods that develop critical thinking are more likely to have and use these skills themselves (Amdur, 1990), the use of questioning during music lessons has been found to elevate pupils’ ability to participate and think critically (Burwell, 2005; Sheldon & DeNardo, 2005; Goolsby, 1997). Therefore, while allowing time to discuss pupils’ responses about musical elements was found to directly benefit their ‘understanding of how to perform expressively’ (Meissner, 2017: 125), it is also assumed that questioning will improve their understanding generally. Enquiry is a tool for developing the ‘language of learning’ to become a dominant discourse (Claxton, 2008: 107). It encourages the pupils to think critically and share ideas. This study assumes that this language of learning is not age dependent, and examines whether it is possible to enhance this skill in the young violin pupil through enquiry. Burwell suggests that the pupil-teacher dialogue may develop and increase over time as a direct result of how skilful a teacher is at selecting and sequencing different types of questions (Burwell, 2005).

Bandura (1993) showed that although younger children do possess the ability to verbalise their thinking when listening to music, older children ‘were more willing to

express judgments’ (Bandura, 1993 cited in Younker, 2002: 167). Others support this view, finding that children are commonly able to predict, specify, compare, evaluate, reflect, recognise, and indicate their preferences (Younker, 2002), but also verbally express their critical thinking during musical interactions (Paul, 1993). Encouraging pupils to vocalise their opinions, feelings and ideas can create meaning for their participation, and motivate a learning rich dialogue (Claxton, 2018, 2008; Duckworth, 2006; Bamberger, 1991). As Claxton (2008) simply iterates, ‘if young people do not know how to talk about the process, the feelings and the trials of learning, it is hard to interest them in how they might get better at it’ (p. 107).

Burwell (2005) found that some third level instrumental teachers direct pupil engagement through ‘instructions…disguised as questions’ (p. 204) as a means to gently control a sequence of events. An example such as, ‘could you play a D major scale now?’ only instructs rather than triggers deep thinking. Teachers were found to also use a large number of rhetorical questions such as, ‘that sounded good didn’t it?’ If students responded at all, it was normally with a simple yes or no response. While perhaps useful as a checking mechanism, answers to these questions limit avenues for going forward. On the other hand, interrogative and exploratory questions are ones that ‘check’ what a pupil knows, and gives them the opportunity to share the reasoning (Burwell, 2005: 206). These open a path for discussion that increases the possibility for pupils to feel valued (Burwell, 2005: 208). Initiating dialogue through such open-ended questions is educationally supportive by generating deeper thinking and articulation of thought. Although Burwell has conducted research into how instrumental teachers use questioning to enrich the independence of third level students, further investigation is needed regarding the impact of enquiry on the younger instrumentalist.

Claxton suggests looking for appropriate opportunities to use simple but open questions when working with younger pupils as a way of modelling enquiry. The types of questions he suggests are appropriate for the young violinists in my study:

• How are you going to go about that? • How else could you do that?

• What are the tricky parts? (Claxton, 2008: 107)

These are the types of questions used throughout my enquiry to motivate personal reflection and ignite rich dialogue between pupil, teacher, and peers, and while answers to simple questions may be predictable, there will no doubt be times when responses are unexpected. It is possible that during this enquiry some pupils might find responding to questions challenging or frustrating, especially if they believe learning should be free of mistakes. However, Claxton (2008: 139) asserts that questioning and dialogue assists pupils to find more positive and investigative approaches. It could happen that obscured thinking is clarified during this process, or conversely that the search causes further confusion, but it is likely to be a process that ignites new and critical thinking about alternative solutions or paths to explore.