Colaboración Jesuitas-Laicos un cambio de acento

Power is inherent in most leadership positions, both internally within an organization and externally. As an example of an external situation, Eckman (2004) found that male principals often chose to pursue a principal role to financially support their families. Female principals often did not seek a principal role (Eckman, 2004). Yet, the females struggled with situations when the other party expected a principal to be male, because power is associated with males. Power may be a change catalyst for those in leadership; particularly for women in leadership.

Women who work in the nonprofit sector, like a hospital, have power struggles as well. Gender causes struggles, but so does the issue of females contending among

themselves for the most power (Barrett & Taylor, 2002). Women can combat this

divisive behavior by learning how to help one another. For example, midwives have used “tea time” to connect, share their knowledge, and create relationships that would help them pursue goals later in their professional lives (Barrett & Taylor, 2002). Thus, it

Page 27 seems natural for women to be good at forming positive relationships and using power collectively to enhance the lives of all women. In the same manner, women in leadership should also gain power by making connections and striving for healthy relationships.

Power status may shift according to gender (Young et al., 2006). It seems women have less organizational power, access to resources, and advocates to help them advance. It is possible women do not use these three positioning factors as much as men do

because women do not perceive themselves as being availed to them. Young et al. (2006) think it is possible that men seek out high-powered mentors. Likewise, if a man and a woman hold the same position, the man would be chosen as a mentee because of the power factor that males naturally hold (Young et al., 2006).

Power can also be played out through office politics. Ferris, Frink, Galang, Zhou, Kacmar, and Howard (1996) defines organizational politics as actions and behaviors that come from one person or a group of people against another that create conflict in the work environment. This tête-à-tête is not part of an organization’s formalities. Office politics can be subjective, based on someone’s perception of reality. Whether stressors or motivators, politics come from a state of uncertainty. Greater potential for politics exists when the power is centralized at the top of an organization. However, politics decrease when formal policies are woven into an organization, because uncertainty is also decreased (Ferris et al., 1996). Office or organizational politics can also arise when resources are scarce. For example, when layoffs occur, the lack of job opportunities and secure employment causes uncertainty, which leads to tension among staff and, thus, office politics. Fairness of decisions can also create politics because of a lack of certainty. Overall, politics can create anxiety, poor job satisfaction, and dissatisfaction with a

Page 28 supervisor. Men perceive politics more than women do, but men see politics as part of the job, so they are more involved with the politics in an organization (Ferris et al., 1996; Gardiner & Tiggemann, 1999).

Kelly and Dabul Marin (1998) derived an assessment to recognize the blockers for career mobility. Women currently should be tough, decisive, demanding, assertive, and desire power and achievement (Kelly & Dabul Marin, 1998). Kelly and Dabul Marin (1998) found that power seems to be an imperative for those who want to rise, but power is determined by the position, not the person holding the position. Kelly and Dabul Marin’s (1998) power and fast track job scale measured how women climbed the ladder. The researchers’ results found that those with higher positions had the support of a mentor. Power can come from a pair or a group of people with similar goals (Kelly & Dabul Marin, 1998). A mentor can have an abundance of power to speak into the life of the mentee (Perna et al., 1995). Office politics obliges women to assess their power. Some women find stress in being lonely and overworked (Gardiner & Tiggemann, 1999). Gardiner and Tiggemann (1999) found that women recognized increased office politics and pressure from less power. People who show high political skills seem to be honest, caring, and engaging, according to Breland, Treadway, Duke, and Adams (2007). As people move up within the organization, they leverage their social capital and employ their political skills. Political skills give people the ability to use subjectivity within the promotion process by using their social capital. Positioning and personal branding can also be a sign of political skills. Those with strong political skills seem to make confident and autonomous decisions (Breland et al., 2007). Yet at the same time, Generation X may lack the skills to deal with issues between staff members (Mosley, 2005). The lack of

Page 29 skills may be addressed by allowing trial-and-error experiences and “patient mentoring” (Mosley, 2005, p. 188).

External factors, such as organizational culture and other power relations, can influence mentoring pairs (Ragins, 1997). A minority mentee’s power can come from external cultural norms. Society has power that influences organizations, and

organizations have power that influences relationships. However, majority groups in society that become minority groups in organizations are different from those who are a minority in society and in the organization (Ragins, 1997). Mentoring allows space for mentees to be influenced by the relationship with the mentor and the relationship that develops power in an organization. Internal relationship power and external

organizational power can be uneven but still effective. Ragins (1997) gives the example of a mentor who might not have enormous organizational influence but can raise up a mentee nonetheless through the relationship with that mentee. “Power attributions are influenced by group membership, and may lead to underestimation of minority mentors’ power by the protégé, others in the organization, or even by the mentor” (Ragins, 1997, p. 488). Mentoring can increase power, and the mentee may have more power than what the mentor assumes. Ragins (1997) notes that a majority mentor may view a minority mentee differently or the pair may have different power. Therefore, keeping in mind the number of diverse characteristics within a pair can allude to the success of the relationship because of the power differential.

Within the mentoring relationship, the power discrepancy may be more evident when the dyad comprises a person from a majority group, and the other of a minority group. Ragins (1997) says mentors sometimes perceive mentees as younger versions of

Page 30 themselves. Meanwhile, mentees may see mentors as who the mentees could be in the future. These perceptions make mentoring different from other relationships at work. “Asymmetrical power relationships, in turn, promote stereotyping because people with power do not pay attention to individual differences that may dispel stereotypic

impressions” (Ragins, 1997, p. 495). In addition, stereotypes of minorities can skew people’s perception of a minority and the power that person might have; stereotypes may cause people to perceive minorities as having less power (Ragins, 1997). Ragins (1997) uses the illustrations of a female being mentored by either a man or a woman. The mentee might perceive a male mentor as having more power. If the mentor is a woman, the mentee might be perceived as having less power. Ragins (1997) suggests that because of this power variation, mentee successes could be perceived as a victory for the mentor if the mentee is a minority. Likewise, the mentee could receive more credit for something that should have been attributed to the mentor if the mentor is part of a minority group. Successes and failures for the minority mentee or mentor might be risky because

successes or failures can be visible. The reputation of either the mentor or mentee could change positively or negatively (Ragins, 1997).