Rural people-cen-tred development project
Project implemen-tation by staff and donor representa-tives
Rural participation and empowerment of participants
Monitoring by project staff and donors
Approaches to technology:
Marketing possi-bilities Quality of soil
and water con-servation Effectiveness of
seed distribution and storage Links to national
and interna-tional research Clear
FIGURE 10.1. Dual tension in projects for rural development.
10.1 Introduction
Find out, coordinate, participate, inform, deliver.A participatory or people-centred approach to devel-opment may be faced with problems in addition to those discussed in previous chapters. An example of this is the tension between the logic of the agency consid-ering an agenda, based on upward accountability and planning, whilst delivering a sustainable project, and the logic of the staff working on the ground facing poten-tially conflicting demands for participation from local and donor interests. Such a
‘dual logic’ tension (David Mosse in Cooke and Koth-ari, 2001, p. 25) may occur.
Some factors which may play a role in this are indi-cated in Figure 10.1.
In that context this final chapter attempts to set out some broad outlines of which those involved with processes aimed at achiev-ing food security in a stable landscape, must be aware.
In the situation of a chang-ing world and the enormous demands population pres-sure places on the need for food security, political will
Chapter 10 International, National and Local Agencies - Conclusion
should be mobilized to initiate and sus-tain action. Flexibility and willingness to learn is an essential attribute for all actors in this process.
10.2 Tensions
What do donors and recipients respectively mean by participation?
10.2.1 Cultural environment and participation
If a participatory process with rural small farmers in low income countries is to have a chance of success, the potential impact of the local cultural environment on such processes should be understood by those involved in the intervention.
Cohesive group relations may be most important in environments, where culture as defined by local history is a driving factor. Personal relationships, kinship and connections form the bases from which the power of main decision makers derives. Less powerful members in that society may be inclined to accept an un-equal distribution of decision-making power. Participation in such communities may mean that people (participants) with less local power are quite happy to leave decisions to those with more local power.
The local political context is likely to play an important role here and will influ-ence what form participation by small-scale and subsistence farmers takes.
Because these cultural environments may differ over relatively short distances, donor staff employees working in the field must demonstrate a willingness to learn and listen. In this respect personal contact and trust between development staff and small farmers is most important. Staff may find that the level of participation by various groups will vary over time. This may be the case when it comes to
moni-toring the effectiveness of the project.
Time will be needed to determine (with flexible boundaries) who is going to do what. That the situation will be fluid must be accepted. In view of all this it is likely to be difficult to set out appropriate levels of participation. Starting small with a core of farmers involved in experimentation (see Figure 5.3 on page 81) and expand-ing this to a limited number of farmers to be involved in planning, joint experimen-tation and the designing and implementa-tion of an appropriate monitoring process, may be an approach promising some result. Based on such results, collabora-tion with the general farming public who appear to be prepared to adopt defined measures on the basis of sharing monitor-ing and participatory findmonitor-ings, might be sought (Guijt, 1998, p. 14).
The success of a development project is likely to depend on the project’s staff’s ability to incorporate their (long-term) findings into the design of the project (John Hailey in Cooke and Kothari, 2001, pp. 88-101).
10.2.2 Communication
Project staff working for institutions (local and international) and donors, should get a firm feel of the impact of the traditional and cultural background under which farm systems (see ‘Farm system’
on page 135) function. The role of women in sustaining effective communication between small farmers is especially important. As women in WDRs often are instrumental in maintaining effective farming households, the availability of micro-finance, to be used directly by female small-scale and subsistence farm-ers (see ‘Micro-finance’ on page 171) may play a role (see ‘Poor subsistence farmers’ households’ on page 21).
Tensions
1. To get their views about family rela-tionships and producing food on a small-scale farm, communicate with groups of women who work and live as small farmers.
2. Ensure that these views are defined. It will be difficult to arrive at some form of consensus. Powerful and eloquent small farmers (female or male) may think they know what the project staff would like to hear. To strengthen their personal influence they may be inclined to try to influence others by pushing their assessment of the project aims forward.
In this setting, a difficulty for the project staff will be to find out to what extent a sustainable participatory approach is feasible. As the emphasis of the project is on delivery, their may be tension between on the one hand the aim of the project agency to deliver a sustainable programme, with the operational procedures this requires, and on the other hand the participatory logic with its emphasis on local level and integrated planning and capacity building. Project staff will be faced with this duality (see Figure 10.1 on page 185).
3. Demonstrate to local authorities that small farmers can be instrumental in the process of achieving food security.
For this purpose successful small-scale farmers who live and work in the region might be asked to hold a series of open days. Local officials and inter-national development project staff should ascertain what can be learnt from such local experience.
10.2.3 Higher education
Assess the impact of higher education study programmes at national universities on local rural communities. Graduates of
such programmes should be able to find professional satisfaction and a good salary in working with (participate) local small-scale and subsistence farmers in being involved in small-scale agricultural devel-opment.
1. Ensure that study programmes are directed towards working with local farming communities.
2. Ensure that salary levels of graduates working in these communities are at least on the same level as those earned by colleagues working in governmen-tal posts.
10.2.4 Terms of trade
Update the present knowledge and insight into what the situation is in which communities find themselves in rural areas of WDRs. The local food prices as compared to world market prices should be central to this enquiry.
1. The World Food Summit (see Table 10.1 on page 189) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) should put the industrialized nations under pres-sure to hasten the dismantling of their agricultural support programmes.
2. More attention should be devoted to the circumstance that a new world is upon us. This means that low income countries may be left further behind in the not too distant future. Political will must be gathered to ensure that the terms of trade (see Glossary) become more favourable to such countries.
10.2.5 The physical infrastructure Assess the impact of infrastructure with respect to the availability and access to roads and markets for each area.
1. Local governments and farmers’
organizations should open their doors
Chapter 10 International, National and Local Agencies - Conclusion
for local and international civil engi-neering organizations to survey rural areas. Projects, supported by interna-tional financial institutions, should work towards improving accessibility to markets wherever appropriate.
2. Consult with the local small-scale and subsistence farming community about the existence and ease of access to markets. This is a factor affecting the extent to which local farmers may wish to increase their production of crops for food.
3. Where state factors (see Glossary) of climate, topography, parent material and potential biota point to favourable conditions to produce a specific crop(s), consider whether a market can be created to provide an outlet for such crops. The Mumias Outgrower Scheme is an example (Beevers, 1980).
Establish or update existing systems to ensure that the most recent information regarding population density, food pro-duction and consumption, is available on an ongoing basis.
1. Population density, population growth, and poverty may have a direct impact on the sustainability of livelihoods.
Therefore, the effect of these factors on the livelihood of small-scale and subsistence farmers in low income countries should be monitored on an ongoing basis.
2. The effects of projects to improve food security should be monitored against the background of population growth and poverty.
Find out how in the opinion of local small-scale and subsistence farmers food production can be increased. The use and efficiency of farm systems in the context
of intercropping and the social implica-tions of agricultural practices are relevant in this regard.
1. The extent to which intercropping (growing two or more crops at the same time in a field) is used in specific areas could be a useful indicator of food security in such areas. The fre-quency of intercropping, in terms of area and number of farms, should be monitored against the occurrence of food insecurity.
2. Is there an awareness amongst small-scale and subsistence farmers of land equivalent ratios (see Glossary)? Can a monetary benefit be demonstrated?
3. How can social differentiation be min-imized? Some farmers may not have the resources to obtain materials.
4. Can a consensus be found amongst small-scale and subsistence farmers that intercropping may be beneficial?
10.3 Work together
The situation arising from popula-tion pressure and changing state factors affects everybody.
10.3.1 Introduction
As a result of massive and ongoing changes in information and communica-tion technologies, underpinning major changes in technological and social devel-opments, humanity is facing a new world.
The impact of these changes is apparent from people moving from less developed to more developed parts of the world.
Increasing world population in the less developed world is an important driver for this phenomenon. As this evolves at an increasing pace, deteriorating food secu-rity and land degradation produce a high cost in human capital worldwide.
Work together
This is demonstrated by the persisting and increasing food insecurity in some of the World Development Regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa (AFR) and South Asia (SAS).
This situation is summarized in Table 10.1, showing trends related to World
Food Summit (WFS) targets. Urgent inter-national and coordinated action to address the desperate situation of too low a dietary energy supply in which so many people in the low income countries find themselves (see Table 10.2), is needed.
TABLE 10.1. Undernourishment - progress towards the World Food Summit targets. a
Number of people undernourished
WDR and sub-region
Population millions 2003-2005
1990-92 millions
1995-97 millions
2003-05 millions
Progress towards WFS Target = 0.5
WFS trend 1990-92 to 2003-05
World 6,406.0 841.9 331.8 848.0 1.0 Up
Developed countries 1,264.9 19.1 21.4 15.8 0.8 Down
Developing world 5,141.0 822.8 810.4 832.2 1.0 Up
Sub-Saharan Africa (AFR)
698.3 168.8 194.0 212.2 1.3 Up
Central Africa 93.1 22.0 38.4 53.3 2.4 Up
East Africa 242.4 77.1 86.1 86.0 1.1 Up
Southern Africa 99.2 32.4 35.8 36.8 1.1 Up
West Africa 263.7 37.3 33.8 36.0 1.0 Down
ASIA and the Pacific 3,478.5 582.4 535.0 541.9 0.9 Down
East Asia 1,386.1 183.5 152.0 131.8 0.7 Down
Southeast Asia 544.5 105.6 88.6 86.9 0.8 Down
South Asia (SAS) 1,468.4 282.5 284.8 313.6 1.1 Up
Central Asia 57.7 4.0 4.7 6.5 1.6 Up
Western Asia 15.9 6.1 4.4 2.2 0.4 Down
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIB-BEAN
544.2 52.6 51.8 45.2 0.9 Down
North and Central America
141.9 9.3 10.2 8.8 0.9 Down
The Caribbean 33.7 7.5 8.6 7.6 1.0 Up
South America 368.6 35.8 33.0 28.8 0.8 Down
NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
420.0 19.1 29.6 33.0 1.7 Up
Near East 270.1 19.1 29.6 33.0 1.7 Up
North Africa 149.9 4.0 4.3 4.6 1.2 Up
a. Source: FAO, 2008, The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2008, Table 1. © 2008 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Used with permission.