Componentes del Producto:

Writing half a century ago, Bodenheimer remarked that: ‘Africa is perhaps today the continent where insects still play the most important role in the native diet’ (1951: 22).

This is certainly true of Malawi, and, long before the emergence of cultural entomology, the pioneer ethnobiologist Jessie Williamson was

writing graphically of the edible insects that were recorded during the Nyasaland Survey 1938–1940 (Williamson 1941, 1992). Williamson was quite a remarkable woman. Dr William Berry, who was a member of the survey team, described her as a ‘small, slight, dark haired, very sunburnt woman in her early thirties’ who was known as Jabe, and he writes warmly of her enthusiasm, energy, modesty, and compassion for local women (W. T. C. Berry 1984: 43). To local women however, Williamson was known as Mwadyachiani – ‘What do you eat?’ – for this was the question she invariably asked when in the villages conducting her food survey. Williamson recorded more than twenty species of insects commonly eaten as food in the Dowa and Nkhotakota districts, and offered notes on their methods of cooking, palatability and nutri- tional value. Such data were later incorporated into the various editions of the Malawi Cookbook, which always included a section on the common insects eaten – the ‘traditional delicacies’. About a dozen species were described and illustrated, and notes were given on cooking procedures. What these books particularly emphasized was that insects had long been recognized as a valuable source of food in Malawi, and were a very good and cheap source of protein (Shaxson, Dixon and Walker 1974: 21–3; CCAM 1992: 139–43). It is surprising, then, that Chimwaza’s thesis on food and nutrition in Malawi (1982) has scant discussion of insects, and makes no mention at all of Jessie Williamson’s pioneering studies.

Leaving aside the importance of honey, edible insects in sub-Saharan Africa focus essentially around five orders or groups of insects – termites, grasshoppers/locusts/crickets, bugs, beetles and caterpillars. The total number of edible insects in Africa probably amounts to several hundred species – or even more; but the common species recorded in the literature number 113. These belong to the following families:

Isoptera Termites 7

Orthoptera Locusts, grasshoppers, crickets 27

Hemiptera Bugs 11

Coleoptera Beetles 9

Diptera Lakefly 1

Lepidoptera Edible caterpillars 54

Hymenoptera Ants/bees 4

Total 113

(After Bodenheimer 1951: 137–98; Van Huis 1996: 7; Illgner and Nel 2000: 341–5.)

There have been many detailed studies of edible insects in sub-Saharan Africa, and all such studies indicate that the consumption of insects is widespread throughout the continent. In any particular locality between 35 and 70 species of insects may be commonly eaten, and edible cater- pillars and winged termites seem to be the usual favourites. The number of edible insect species recorded for different countries is as follows:

Species Families Congo 65 22 Zambia 60 15 South Africa 35 16 Zimbabwe 40 14 (DeFoliart 1999: 23–31)

Such insects are not simply famine foods, nor infrequent ‘delicacies’ (as they seem to be among many hunter–gatherers), but are an intrinsic part of the diet. In the Congo, Gome, Hault and Cullin (1961) estimated that insects furnished 10 per cent of the animal proteins produced annu- ally, compared with 30 per cent for game animals, 10 per cent for domes- tic livestock, 48 per cent for fishing, and 2 per cent for poultry. In some districts insects furnished around 37 per cent of the animal proteins consumed. In many parts of Africa termites and edible caterpillars are preferred as relish to meat and chicken. What is equally important is that termites and caterpillars are collected during the early part of the rainy season – which is typically the ‘hunger’ season for many African people. As insects are high in energy value, protein and many vitamins and minerals, they are a crucial food source. During the season, and if in abundant supply, insects are widely marketed in urban areas – caterpillars and termites especially, which often attain a higher market price than imported meat (Quin 1959; Nkouka 1987; Holden 1991; DeFoliart 1999: 23–31).

We may discuss the edible insects of Malawi under broad headings, which roughly correspond to categories recognized by local people.

Termites

(Isoptera)

The winged termite is the relish par excellence in Malawi, and, it appears, throughout sub-Saharan Africa. As a food source it is greatly esteemed, and most people – but not all – consider it superior as a relish to chicken or meat. Bodenheimer long ago described termites as an ‘African manna’, and described the collection of winged termites among peoples through- out Africa, together with their cooking procedures and nutritional value.

His general conclusion was that although termites are highly favoured as a delicacy everywhere, they also, especially during the early part of the rainy season, form a crucial part, as relish, of people’s regular diet. Normally people eat the winged reproductives, but also, on occasions, the soldier termites and queens. Among the important species he mentions are: Acanthotermes spiniger, Macrotermes goliath, Odontotermes sp. and

Bellicositermes sp. (Bodenheimer 1951: 144–60). Recent studies have

confirmed the crucial role that termites play in the diet of African people, particularly those associated with the genus Macrotermes (McGregor 1995; DeFoliart 1999: 30).

Although there are probably around a hundred species of termites in Malawi, the edible species of termites focus around the family

Termitidae, and I found little evidence of local people eating the small

mound termites chiswe cha chikula (Cubitermes spp.) or the harvester termites nthusi (Hodotermes mossambicus), although both these species are common throughout Malawi, at least in suitable localities. The generic term for termites is chiswe, and Malawians make a general distinction between those termites associated with termite mounds (chulu) (Macrotermes spp.) and the smaller termites, which often do not construct conspicuous mounds (Odontermes spp., Microtermes spp.,

Pseudocanthotermes spp.). The latter, generally described as Chiswe Cha

Micholo (termite of the hole) are not a favoured food, although the alates of the larger species mbereswa (Odontotermes spp.) are often collected by young children, and eaten raw. They gather them up as they emerge from the holes on their nuptial flight – often in their thousands. They normally take to the wing around midday during the rains.

Termites of the genus Macrotermes are common throughout Malawi, and are especially characteristic of Brachystegia woodland, although also common along the Lakeshore and in the Lower Shire Valley. Several species have been recorded, including Macrotermes goliath,

Macrotermes bellicosus and Macrotermes natalensis. Some of the

mounds are enormous: those of M. bellicosus are perpendicular, and reach the height of a mango tree, some 4–5 metres, while those of

Macrotermes falciger may be 20 metres in diameter, and form forested

islands in cultivated land. This latter species was common in the Namadzi area, and is the termite with which I am most familiar.

My first encounter with termites, and one of the most memorable expe- riences of my life, happened on a December evening at Zoa in 1958. I was reading a book one evening when I suddenly became aware of a great commotion taking place on the verandah (khonde) of the house. I went outside and confronted an amazing sight. The whole verandah was filled with thousands of winged termites, which had evidently been attracted by

the light, some flying around, some crawling on the ground, and amongst them was the watchman Justin of Khuguwe village, frantically trying to collect them – with the aid of a bucket and a hessian bag. This is one method of collecting the winged termites, collectively known as inswa (C) or ngumbi (Y). Local people speak of two kinds of ngumbi (the winged Macrotermes spp.): ngumbi chausiku (termites of the night) or

kauni (Macrotermes subhyalinus), and the ngumbi chamasana (of

midday), although the nuptial flight of Macrotermes falciger tends to be in the late afternoon, around 5 p.m.

To capture the night form kauni men collect several bundles of dry thatching grass, kamphi (Hyparrhenia filipendula) and make them into a bundle (chisakata). They also dig a hole at the base of the termite mound, where they suspect nuptial activity is taking place. Around midnight when the winged forms (ngumbi) begin to emerge collectively the men light the grass bundles to form a torch, and this is held over the pit. The winged termites are attracted to the light, and falling to the ground as they seek to mate, they are swept (-sesa) by both men and women (and helping young children) into the pit. They are then collected and taken away in a bucket or bag.

To collect the termites of the day (ngumbi chamasana), which are described as much larger and darker (-kuda) than those of the night – which are reddish-brown (-fiira) – is a much more complicated affair. An active termite mound is sought, and when one is discovered in the wood- land (thengo) any person has a right to claim it as his or her own and may mark it with a stick or stone. But not until he or she has built a bamboo frame (litala) over it does he or she have exclusive rights to the termites – although such rights are only usufruct for that season, and cease if the

litala is not maintained (Rangeley 1948). Individuals, usually men but

sometimes young women, often have long-term rights over particular termite mounds, negotiated through the village headman or estate owners. The alates of Macrotermes sp. begin emerging from December onwards, and are evident throughout the rains. Once a potential mound has been identified, with nuptial activity suspected, the vegetation is cleared from one side of the mound and it is scraped level (kupalapala) with a hoe to form a broad smooth pathway (kanjira), down which the emerging termites will fall. At the lower end of the ‘scrape’ a pit is dug, and in it is placed a tin or bucket – in the past it was an earthenware pot (monjo). Over the site is then placed a framework of branches or split bamboo (litala), and around its base aromatic grass (mpobvu) and asparagus stems tsitsilamanda – ‘root of the graveyard’ (Asparagus

africanus) – are placed. Such medicine is said to induce the winged

of the framework is completely covered with either more grass or leaves. Other people are said to use chamba (Cannabis sativa), another aromatic herb, as medicine. The smoke of the herb is gently blown (-fukiza) into the galleries (mcholo) of the termite mound. The medicines are said to have a good smell that encourages the alates to emerge. Water may or may not be placed in the tin or pot.

With the emergence of the winged termites late in the afternoon, great excitement may be generated, and several family members may gather to help in the collection of the termites. Much effort has to be expended in closing down all the other openings on the termite mound from which the alates may be emerging – and there may be many – so as to ensure that the alates only emerge from the holes beneath the litala framework. When they do emerge, the winged termites arise in their thousands, and the soldier termites (mgagadula) come to the surface to offer protection, along with many workers. Almost every creature in Africa enjoys eating termites – at least those who are not herbivores, especially humans – and those termites that manage to escape beyond the litala and fly into the air are eagerly pounced upon by scores of birds that surround the termite mound during collecting activities. As the winged termites emerge – a process described graphically as ‘papapa’ – birds gather them up. Among those species recorded by John Wilson as feeding on emerging termites in Zomba township were the following: pygmy kingfisher, white-eared barbet, lesser honey-guide, black-eyed bulbul, Heuglin’s robin, collared sunbird, olive sunbird, spectacled weaver and yellow-eyed canary. Around forty species of birds were recorded. Those termites that fall to the ground, shedding their wings in the process, are immediately seized upon by other inver- tebrates, including a parasitic fly.

As termites emerge in their thousands, the tin or pot may quickly be filled, and so the insects have to be continually scooped out and placed in a bag – usually, these days, an old fertilizer bag (thumba). Although termite collectors may cover their hands with bits of plastic, this may be a very painful exercise, as soldier termites bury their mandibles into the skin, and can draw blood. Collecting termites is thus a rather exciting and hectic activity, particularly as termite mounds are rich in clay, and so, if it is raining, one slips and slides all over the place. It is important to note, however, that in any particular locality, many termite mounds appear to be dormant, and contain no insects. In a transect of 900 metres on Kapalasa farm ten termite mounds were recorded, each some 20 metres in diameter and covered with trees or bamboo; yet only two of these termite mounds produced nuptial flights, and thus the collection of winged termites, during the year I was there.

After collection the termites are boiled in a pot of water, the women stir- ring (-phatikiza) the termites continually with a porridge stick (mthiko), and removing by hand any leaves or debris. The next morning the termites are put in the sun to dry (-yanika), usually being spread over a rocky outcrop (Figure 1). When they are dried, the women winnow (-peta) the termites to remove the wings and any further debris. The termites are then in a suitable condition for cooking, or storing for future use, or, if there is a surplus, selling in the local market. The termites – the gathering may include many soldiers amongst the winged alates – are cooked in the same manner as grasshoppers and crickets: heated in a pan over the fire with a little water and salt, the salt dissolving in the water (-sungunuka) and penetrating the body of the insect. As the winged termites contain a lot of fat or oil (mafuta), which is why they are so esteemed, no cooking oil is usually used in their preparation. The termites are usually eaten as a side dish or relish (ndiwo) with maize porridge. This method of capturing and cooking winged termites has a long history, and was noted by earlier scholars (Johnston 1897: 371; Williamson 1992: 271).

During the dry season, if relish is particularly short, women and young children will collect soldier termites. A piece of dry grass or straw is lowered into openings in the termite hill, and quickly extracted when the soldier termite seizes the grass stem in its powerful mandibles. They may be eaten raw, or cooked later. These termites are rich in protein (cf. Ellert 1984: 114).

Termites are eaten throughout Malawi, and when I travelled by motor- cycle from Nsanje to Chitimba in February 2001 I noticed termite traps (litala) on almost every stretch of the road, and termites were being sold on the roadside by young men and women – holding baskets or buckets of termites aloft. Termites were also to be found in the local markets. At that time the termites were selling at 5 or 10 mk per small plate. One of my close friends who made a speciality of collecting termites suggested to me that during the season he obtained around 1,400 mk from selling termites locally – which was a useful income when the wage for a watch- man or agricultural labourer was only 1,000 mk (£10) per month. Williamson estimated that during the rains men usually consumed around 30–60 gms of termites per day (30–40 termites), with women and chil- dren eating lesser amounts (Berry and Petty 1992: 107).

The nutritional value of termites has long been affirmed. A hundred grams of fried termites have a value of 561 calories, which makes them one of the richest of foods, and contain some 40 per cent fat and 36 per cent protein, as well as being rich in such minerals as phosphates and potash. The high fat content of kauni (Macrotermes subhyalinus) was reflected in their high energy value, 613 kcal/100 gm; they also have 38 per cent protein, and contain such minerals as phosphorus, magnesium and iron. Thus, besides being a well-liked delicacy and relish, termites have a very high nutritional value (Bodenheimer 1951; 29–30; DeFoliart 1975; 161–2, 1989: 26; Nkouka 1987).

Equally important is that pregnant women often eat the soil of termite mounds, particularly old mounds. They suggested to me that this is not because it is medicine, or that they are sick, but rather because of its rich smell (-nunkira bwino), and that it is this that they desire ardently (-lakalaka).

There is one species of chiswe that it is appropriate to discuss here, although it is not strictly speaking a termite, but an ant. This is mafulu-

fute, the thief ant (Carebara vidua, subfamily Myrmecinae). The worker

ants are tiny, reddish-yellow, and around 1–2 mm long, and can inflict an irritating itch. The thief ants are found only in association with termite mounds or nests, and they are essentially predators living within the colony and carrying off the eggs and young of the termites as food. Given their size and colour, and the fact that they are associated with termite mounds/nests, it is not surprising that they are described as chiswe by local people.

The winged ants emerge from the termite mounds or from holes in the ground at the beginning of the rains, usually at the end of November. Like the mbereswa, they emerge around midday or in the early afternoon, usually after a shower of rain. The female ants are large, a shiny black and

around 25 mm long (and thus enormous in comparison with the worker ants); the males are smaller with a black head and thorax, a large ochre- yellow abdomen, and some 17 mm long. The flying ants are described as

mafulufute or nyamu (nyama, meat), and are highly esteemed as a relish,

especially the female, which has lots of fat. The CCAM cookbook notes that the mafulufute ‘consist of females which are big, black, very oily and tasty. The males are small, brown and not so tasty’ (1992: 141). The flying ants come out of their holes singly and at intervals, and patience is required in collecting them – as I discovered from my own experience. Hence the proverb that runs:

Mafulufute akamatuluka Usamawatsinire ku dzenje which roughly translated means:

When the flying ant comes out Do not squeeze them at the hole.

It signifies: have patience, let them completely emerge before collect- ing them. Before roasting, or cooking in salted water, the brown wings are removed. Locally people correctly refer to the male winged ant as

mphongo. The large females of Carebara seem to be highly prized as a

delicacy not only in Malawi, but throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and are eaten raw, roasted or cooked (Bodenheimer 1951: 193; Gelfand 1971: 168).

Locusts

(Orthoptera)

Locusts and grasshoppers have been eaten by humans since time imme- morial, and they are one of the few insects clearly recognized as food in the Mosaic dietary rules. They are mentioned fifty-six times in the Bible, and appear in seventeen different books – which indicates their impor- tance as food (or pest) in Biblical times. They appear more often than any other insect, and around nine different generic names are described in the scriptures (Cansdale 1970: 238–9). They are specifically distinguished from all ‘winged creeping things’ – which are deemed abominations – by the fact that they ‘have legs above their feet, to leap withal upon the earth’ (Leviticus 11: 20–3). The generic names probably refer to various grasshoppers, locusts and crickets – all of which were considered edible. Grasshoppers and locusts, however, were not only eaten by the ancient