In contrast to the behaviourist theory, which encourages learning in a stimulus-response manner with learning by association, the Constructivist theory is based on the ideas of Dewey, Piaget and Maria Montessori. Although the notions of these theorists vary greatly, each expresses a comparable framework for learning and development (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p146).
Hunt (1969) believed that the theorists are „consistent in their belief that learning and development occur when young children interact with the environment and people around them’ (www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/earlycld/ea7lk18.htm, 19/9/09). The Constructivist theory views children as being active participants in the learning process –
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through interaction and participation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004: p117) – where through learned adaptation, what the children learn or adapt to is directly influenced by the people, materials and situations with which they come into contact (Gordon & Brown., 2007: p147).
5.3.3.1 Dewey
Dewey firmly believed that education was not merely the passing on of knowledge about specific historic events or the biology of a plant, but rather the learning of skills and knowledge that children could incorporate into their daily lives through the integration of education and life, and so develop integrity (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p22).
5.3.3.2 Piaget
Jean Piaget, after close interaction and dealings with children, stated that people progress through four stages, which occur in sequence. Piaget believed that only when a child reaches the age of 15, and has progressed into the 4th and final stage of development, would the child be able to reason like an adult (Berk, 2006: p21; Berk, 2007: p233; Carr, 2006: p14; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p143; Hendrick, 1986: p303).
Generally, there are ages that are assigned to these stages. These are not definite, as children grow and develop at different paces, but they serve as good guidelines (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004: p109).
The four stages of cognitive development, as stated by Piaget, are in accordance with the brain‟s major developments in growth, as the brain is constantly growing throughout childhood, and even sometimes into early adulthood (Berk, 2006: p21; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p143; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004: p109; Seefeldt et al., 1998: p453; Woolfolk, 2007: p28).
The four stages of cognitive development are: the sensorimotor; the pre-operational; the concrete operational; and the formal operational stage. Piaget stated that there are periods where a person may show various characteristics from more than one stage in different situations (Formanek & Gurain, 1981: p5; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p143).
A child in this age group of early childhood would be in the pre-operational stage of cognitive development, where the child is usually between the ages of 2 to 7 years. They begin to talk by applying the knowledge gained over the past two years. The child begins to
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use symbols to represent objects, but generally has difficulty conceptualising and understanding the concept of time.
The child also has a very egocentric viewpoint, where he feels that others see everything from his viewpoint. His thinking patterns are influenced by fantasy (Berk, 2006: p252; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p143; Hendrick, 1986: p305; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004: p109; Seefeldt, et al., 1998: p453).
5.3.3.3 Montessori
Maria Montessori was the founder of the Montessori Method of teaching and learning; and she assisted in the revival of education in the early childhood stage. Montessori was experiencing incredible outcomes and great feedback, working with poor and mentally disabled children (Meier et al., 2007: p22). The Montessori approach takes on and encourages the individual to be free and creative in his/her choices of materials and activities (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p18-19; Meier et al., 2007: p22).
The child is not expected to be able to achieve any task or to master any skill, should his/her development not allow for this. The work and tasks are adapted for each child, so that he/she is allowed freedom, and not pressurised to develop, but can rather develop at his/her own pace (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p18-19). Basic life-lessons and practical experiences are dealt with in a Montessori school, which educates the child on how to deal with real situations and teaches them good values and principles.
The learning and teaching technique focused on in the Montessori classroom is that of stimulating the child‟s senses through various materials and resources (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p19). Children work at their own pace, and are encouraged to develop and grow as individuals. „It stresses the importance of adapting the child's learning environment to his or her developmental level, and of the role of physical activity in absorbing academic concepts and practical skills‟ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori, 10/10/09).
Children are given the freedom to decide for themselves, which materials they will use. Independent and responsible, self-correcting attitudes are encouraged in a warm and loving, peaceful environment. Children need to be creative in their choice of materials. Practical life tasks and activities are learned, such as the cleaning of hands, clothes and tables, doing specific tasks, such as lacing their shoes, or doing up buttons and zipping.
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All objects and equipment in a Montessori classroom are child-centred, as they are the perfect size for children. This encourages independence in the child (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p422- 423).
The role of the teacher is to observe the children as they learn via their own experience. Instruction on how to use materials is generally given by teachers, but children still decide for themselves on the materials, which they will use and what their outcome will be after choosing those materials (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p423).
5.3.4 The Socio-cultural theory
The sociocultural theory is one, which sees children as a fundamental aspect of development – children in the learning environment are very important, and are seen in their totality (Berk, 2006: p20 & p25; Berk, 2007: p234-235; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p149; Meier et al., 2007: p24). Teachers, families and parents play an essential role in the development of young children‟s language abilities through observation and parents‟ scaffolding of the learning with guidance and support (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p149; Meier et al., 2007: p24).
According to De Witt (2009: p55), social or observational learning may be described as ‘a synthesis of the most important elements of the different types of learning’. Vygotsky‟s work is called socio-cultural, because it focuses on the deep connection between culture and development, specifically targeting the interpersonal connection between the child and other people. According to Gordon & Brown. (2008: p149), Vygotsky believed that the child is planted in a specific family and culture of his society and community, which results in much of a child‟s development being defined, according to his/her culture.
The sociocultural theory also focuses on how children‟s values, attitudes, skills, traditions and beliefs are passed on from one generation to the next (Berk, 2006: p259; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p149; De Witt, 2009: p55). Vygotsky believed that adults and people in the child‟s surroundings have the authority to aid and refine children‟s language knowledge, by preparing their external environment (Meier et al., 2007: p24).
According to De Witt (2009: p55), Vygotsky‟s theory is not merely a theory of learning, but also one of teaching and instruction. Children rely greatly on the adults in their milieu to extend knowledge, and thus to facilitate their understanding.
107 5.3.5 The Ecological theory
The ecological theory is one which, like the socio-cultural theory, is based on the assumption that development is significantly influenced by external forces outside the child, and in their environment (Berk, 2006: p26). Physical factors, such as climate, space, home, school and the social environment, including family, culture and the larger society, all play a large role in the development of the young child (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p152).
Bronfenbrenner designed a general theory of human development, which includes an amalgamation of environment and person (Gordon & Brown., 2008: p152). The model describes four systems, which impact and influence human development. The four circles in the centre represent the four primary areas of influence in the young child‟s life, namely: family, school, peers and religious setting. The mesosystem, microsystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem are all intertwined, and have a great influence on one another (Berk, 2006: p27-29; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p152; Woolfolk, 2007: p72-73).
According to Gordon & Brown. (2008: p152), the values of the community (exosystem) and the influence of the social conditions (macro-system) can, in turn, be influenced by the individual family or programme (micro-system).
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Figure 5.2 The Ecological theory shows the different factors, which influence the child‟s development
(Berk, 2006: p28; Gordon & Brown., 2008: p152; Woolfolk, 2007: p73)