All three types of RC and every kind of SC were checked and examined as regards to the possibility of NP GA and NP WA occurring within the clauses. Naturally those SCs which obligatorily delete their subjects are of no concern to us since they are always the same as that of the main clause.
As can be seen in the data below, all example sentences are deliberately given different subjects for the subordinate clause and the main clause because such sentences present the least ambiguous examples if NP WA is at all allowed to occur in a subordinate clause. This leaves no room for contention to arise because NP WA in a subor
dinate clause is in fact the subject of the main clause and because the real subject of the subordinate clause is deleted because it is the same as that of the main clause.
The plus sign in the GA and WA columns signify that such subject NPs marked as GA and WA do occur in the specified SC type. For each case of ' + ' one example sentence is given so as to testify its validity. The impossibility of NP WA or NP GA in an SC is marked by a minus sign. The asterisks, which only appear in the WA column, indicate that a WA marked subject NP is allowed, but only contrastively. This means that in such decontextualised sentences as the examples below,
there must be two explicit WA marked NPs in order to ensure the contrastive meaning.5
GA WA I RELATIVE CLAUSE
1 Internal RC + *
-chichi GA tabeta ryoori father NOM ate dish 'the dish which father ate'
-chichi WA tabeta ga haha WA nokoshita ryoori father TOP ate but mother TOP left dish 'the dish which father ate but mother did not finish'
2 External RC + *
-kuruma GA tooru oto car NOM pass sound
'the sound of a car passing'
-noo WA shindeiru ga shinzoo WA ugoiteiru jootai brain TOP is dead but heart TOP is alive condition
'the condition where the brain is dead but the heart is beating'
3 To-iu RC + +
—kare GA/WA moo kikokushita to— iu uwasa he NOM/TOP already returned to ones's country rumour 'the rumour that he already returned to his country'
II SC MARKED BY MORPHEMES WITH NOMINALITY 1 Adverbial clause
1 Time clause
—Kare GA fumoto made oritekita toki(wa/ni/niwa). ame wa + — he NOM mountain foot to came down when rain TOP
5 The only exception to this is the NP WA subject in the SC marked by warini'in comparison'(II— 1-4). The subject is contrastive yet lacks its contrasting NP within the clause. This is because the meaning of warini intrinsicly brings out the contrastive connotation, making the subject in the subordinate clause and that in the main contrast with each other. The following sentences have been checked as acceptable by other native speakers as well.
yandeita.6 stopped
'When he reached the foot of the mountain, the rain had stopped.'
—Haha GA inai aidani. denwa o suru. + —
mother NOM is away while telephone ACC make 'While mother is away, I'll make a telephone call.'
-Haha GA inai aida, terebi o miteita. + -
mother NOM is away during T.V. ACC was watching 'While mother was away, I was watching T.V.'
-Haha GA inai uchini, denwa o suru. + -
mother NOM is away while telephone ACC make
'While mother is away, I'll make a telephone call.'
— Sakura GA saku koroCni). chichi ga modottekita. + - cherry NOM bloom when father NOM returned
'Father returned when cherry blossoms bloomed.'
-Ame GA futta ato(ni) . hi ga sashitekita. + - rain NOM fell after the sun NOM started shining
'After it rained, the sun started shining.'
—Watashi GA heya ni haitta totan(ni). denki ga kieta. + - I NOM room into entered the moment light NOM went out
'The moment I entered the room, the light went out.'
—Kare GA modottekita tokoro. okane wa moo nakatta sooda. 4- - he NOM returned when money TOP already was gone I hear
'When he returned, apparently the money was already gone.'
-Denwa GA naru tabiCni). watashi wa tobiagatta. + - telephone NOM ring every time I TOP jumped
'Every time the telephone rang, I jumped.'
-Watashi GA ryoorishiteiru saichuu(ni). jama ga haitta. + - I NOM was cooking in the midst of interruption NOM occurred 'In the midst of my cooking, an interruption occurred.'
6 Each particle in brackets may be attached to the subordinating morpheme. The attachment of such a particle creates a certain
difference in meaning but the difference is not significant for the purpose of our survey.
2 Reason clause
—Arne GA/WA furanakatta tame(ni). shiai wa okonawareta. + + rain NOM/TOP did not fall because game TOP was held
'The game was held because it did not rain.'
-Kanojo GA/WA bijin dearu (ga)yue(ni). dansei wa keiensuru. + + she NOM/TOP beauty COP because men TOP shun
'Because she is a beauty, men shun her.'
—Ame GA futta okagede. kusaki ga ikikaetta. + * rain NOM fell thanks to plants NOM came back to life
'Because it rained, plants came back to life.'
—Chichi WA ki ga mijikakatta ga haha WA odayakana seikaku father TOP temper NOM short but mother TOP gentle nature deatta okagede. watashi ni wa yasuragi o erareru basho ga atta. was thanks to I LOC comfort ACC receive place NOM existed 'Although father was short-tempered, because mother was of gentle
nature, I had a place where I could receive comfort.'
—Ka GA ookatta seide. watashi wa hitobanjuu nemurenakatta. + * mosquito NOM abundant because I TOP all night could not sleep 'Because there were many mosquitoes, I could not sleep all night.' —Kion WA takakatta ga sora WA kumotteita seide,
temperature TOP was high but sky TOP was overcast because shigoto wa omotta hodo tsurakunakatta.
work TOP expected as much as was not trying
'Although the temperature was high, because the sky was overcast, the work was not as trying as expected.'
3 Condition clause N . A.
4 Degree clause
-Ame GA futta warini. jimen wa kawaiteiru. + * rain NOM fell in comparison ground TOP is dry
'The ground is not so wet as one would expect from the rain.' -Kare wa atama WA ii warini. yooryoo wa yokunai.
he TOP head TOP good in comparison efficiency TOP not good 'He is not efficient to the same extent as he is smart.'
-Kion GA hikui ueni. kaze ga tsuyokatta. + * temperature NOM low on top wind NOM strong
'The temperature was low and on top of that it was windy.' -Kare wa tomodachi WA ooi ga kane WA nai ueni,
he TOP friends TOP many but money TOP not exist on top onnazuki da.
womanizer COP
(he) is a womanizer.' 5 Manner clause
-Watashi ga itta toori(ni). ano hito wa ii hito datta deshoo. + * 1 NOM said just as that man TOP good man was PRE
'Just as I said, that man was a nice man, wasn't he?' -Chuugokujin WA akarui iro o konomu ga Nihonjin WA kurai
Chinese TOP bright colour ACC like but Japanese TOP dark iro o konomu toori(ni). onaji Ajiajin demo Chuugokujin colour ACC like just as same Asians even Chinese
to Nihonjin wa kanari chigau. and Japanese TOP rather differ
'Just as the Chinese are fond of bright colours and the
Japanese prefer dark colours, the Chinese and the Japanese are rather different even though they are both Asians.'
-Watashi GA itta v ooni. ano hito wa ii hito datta deshoo. + * just like
'Just like I said, that man was a nice man, wasn't he?'
-Chuugokujin WA akarui iro o konomu ga Nihonjin WA kurai iro 0 konomu v o o n i . onaji Ajiajin demo Chuugokujin to Nihonjin
just like wa kanari chigau.
'Just as the Chinese are fond of bright colours and the Japanese prefer dark colours, the Chinese and the Japanese are rather different even though they are both Asians.'
2 Complement clause
—Watashi wa kujira GA/WA honyuurui dearu koto o shitteiru. + + 1 TOP whale NOM/TOP mammal COP COM ACC know
'I know that whales are mammals.'
Ill SC MARKED BY MORPHEMES WITH LITTLE OR NO NOMINALITY 1 Adverbial clause
1 Time clause
-Nihon GA kaikokusuru izen(ni). Japan NOM open up the country before otozureteita.
were visiting
'Before Japan had opened itself up, foreign ships had been visiting (Japan).'
gaikoku no fune wa + - foreign of ship TOP
—Kare GA owaru made. matoo + he NOM finish until let's wait
'Let's wait until he finishes.'
-Kare GA koko ni kuru madeni. heya o katazukeyoo. + he NOM here to come before room ACC let's clean up
'Let's clean up the room before he turns up.'
-Kare GA kaettekite kara. dekaketa. +
he NOM return after went out 'After he came home, we went out.'
-Iyoiyo kaihyoo GA hajimaru niatari. kaku kooho + at last ballot counting NOM start now that each candidate tomo kinchooshiteiru.
all are nervous
'Now that the ballot counting is at last to start, each candidate is nervous.'
-Watashi GA uchi ni hairu gahayaika. ame ga + I NOM house into enter no sooner than rain NOM
furidashita. started to fall
'No sooner than I entered the house, it started raining.'
-Watashi GA futottekuru nitsurete, kare wa tsumetaku natta. + 1 NOM become fat together he TOP cold became
'As I became increasingly fat, he turned increasingly cold.'
-Kurofune GA tsuite irai. Nihonjuu wa oosawagi datta. + Black Ship NOM arrive since all over Japan TOP much excited COP 'Since the Black Ships arrived, there was much excitement
everywhere in Japan.'
-Kurofune GA tsuite igo. Nihonjuu wa oosawagi datta. + after
'After the Black Ships arrived, there was much excitement everywhere in Japan.'
-Kuroda-kun GA kishidai. wareware wa shuppatsusuru. + Mr Kuroda NOM come as soon as we TOP take off
'As soon as Mr Kuroda comes, we will take off.' 2 Reason clause
-Soto GA/WA ame datta node. watashi wa dekakenakatta. + outside NOM/TOP rain was because I TOP did not go out
-Soto GA/WA ame da kara, koen ni daremo inai daroo. + + outside NOM/TOP rain is because park in anybody not exist PRE
'Since it is raining outside, there will be nobody in the park.'
-Kabuka GA/WA jooshoogimi toatte. + +
stock prices NOM/TOP in the trend of going up since ookina kai ga tsuzuiteiru.
big buy NOM is continuing
'Since stock prices are going up, big buys are continuing.'
-Ani GA/WA ramboomono de shirareteiru dakeatte. + + my brother NOM/TOP rascal as is known because
seito wa kare ni nakanaka te o dasootoshinakatta. student TOP him toward hardly hand ACC did not extend
'Since my brother was a well-known rascal, the students were not readily resorting to violence with hi m. '
-Ani GA/WA ramboomono de shirareteiru dakeni, + + because
seito wa kare ni nakanaka te o dasootoshinakatta.
'Since my brother was a well-known rascal, the students were not readily resorting to violence with him.'
-Anata GA/WA itsumo sumashiteiru monodakara. otokonoko ga + + you NOM/TOP always be aloof because boys NOM
yokei karakau wakeyo. all the more tease SFP
'Because you are always aloof, boys tease you more.'
-Kono na GA/WA Gyokuro to magirawashi kotokara. + + this name NOM/TOP with be confusing because
gyookai wa shiyoo o kinshishita. industry TOP usage ACC banned
'Because this name was similar to Gyokuro(a kind of tea) the industry banned its usage.'
-Maitoshi niwa ni kao o dasu sono kusa GA/WA + + every year garden in face ACC appear that grass NOM/TOP
susuki ni niteiru tokorokara. watashi wa aki ni eulalia with resemble because I TOP autumn to sore o kazatte otsukimi o shita.
that ACC decorate moon viewing ACC did
'Because the grass which appeared in my garden every year resembled Japanese eulalia, I used to do moon viewing with the decoration of the grass.'
-Anata GA/WA bijin dearu bakarini. kaette dansei wa + + you NOM/TOP beauty COP because all the more men TOP
keiensuru no kamoshirenai. shun COM maybe
'Because you are a beauty, men may shun you all the more.'
-Anata GA/*WA so iu i j o o , watashi mo ato niwa hikenai. + you NOM/TOP so say because I either back to recede
'Because you insist I cannot back off either.'
-Anata GA/*WA so iu karaniwa. shooko ga aru no deshoo. + you NOM/TOP so say since proof NOM exist PRE
'Since you insist, I guess there is proof for it.' 3 Condition clause
-Anata GA varanakattara. dare ga yaru noyo! + you NOM if did not do who NOM do SFP
'If you didn't do it, who would do it!'
-Anata GA yaranakereba, dara ga yaru noyo! + if did no do
'If you didn't do it, who would do it!'
-Anata GA ikunara. watashi mo iku wa. +
you NOM go if I also go SFP 'If you go, I will go too.'
-Anata GA konai to, paatii ga moriagaranai. + you NOM not come if party NOM not rise
'If you do not come, the party will not be as enjoyable.' 4 Degree clause
-Iki GA kooru kurai, soto wa samui. +
breath NOM freeze extent outside TOP cold
'The outside is cold to the extent that your breath may freeze.'
— Iki GA kooru hodo. soto wa samui. +
degree
'The outside is cold to the extent that your breath may freeze.' -Anata GA iru kagiri. watashi wa kaeranai. +
you NOM stay as long as I TOP will not go home 'As long as you stay, I will not go home.'
-Anata GA monku o iu dake. kare wa katakunani naru. + you NOM complaint ACC say for that he TOP stubborn become 'For as much as you complain, he will become stubborn.'
2 Complement Clause
—Chuusei no hitobito wa chikyuu GA/WA taira da to shinjiteita. + + medieval of people TOP earth NOM/TOP flat COP COM believed
'Medieval people believed that earth is flat.'
—Watashi wa musuko ni kare GA/WA hontoni gakkoo e itta ka(dooka) + + I TOP son DAT he NOM/TOP really school to went if
kiitemita. asked
'I asked my son if he really went to school.'
—Anata GA hayaku yoku naru voo(ni) inotteiru wa. + + you NOM quickly better become COM am praying SFP
'I am praying that you will become better quickly.'
-Shinzooshikkan ga aru hito WA kore ni noranai voo(ni) heart disease NOM exist person TOP this in not ride COM
keikoku ga atta. warning NOM existed
'There was a warning that people with heart disease should not ride in this.'
—Watashi wa kare GA/WA osake o nomanai no o + + I TOP he NOM/TOP alcohol ACC not drink COM ACC
ukkari wasureteita. carelessly had forgotten
'I had carelessly forgotten that he doesn't drink alcohol.'
Fig. 4. Occurrence of GA and WA markings within subordinate clauses and clause examples.