Comunicación paciente - enfermería

Government programmes. These programmes have implemented a number of

government-wide information systems that are generating digital records. Those records will need to be retained for their enduring value, and so there is a strong likelihood that the national archives will need to establish the mechanisms to acquire those records in the near future. In the M3, Eastern African context (M3 (EAC)) the study will endeavour to understand the perceptions held by national archives regarding the applicability of OAIS and RAC to their operational environments.

Of the two sites selected the researcher was only able to visit RAMD in situ, which helped her better understand the realities of operating a digital preservation service in the region. A similar visit was not possible for KNADS due to financial

constraints but the researcher was able to meet with the Chief Archivist responsible for the acquisition and management of digital records at KNADS to conduct an interview about national archives operations.

2.5.3 Data Collection Methods

The data collection and data analysis methods used in this thesis are described below.

The data collection methods include literature reviews (2.5.3.1.), observational data (2.5.3.2) and semi-structured interviews (2.5.3.3).

2.5.3.1 Literature Review

The selection of articles, journals, websites and other secondary reference materials as part of the literature review was an important component of the thesis research. This documentation serves to contextualise current thoughts on digital records preservation, metadata, cultural impact of technology transference, ICT development in the

developing world, the nature of digital records as evidence and related topics. The information gathered through this literature review supports the analysis of the research

findings, helping to ensure the study addresses not just regional but global issues in digital records preservation as well as differences in standards transference between the developed and the developing world.

In the literature review the researcher queried library catalogues at University College London (UCL), British Library, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), Senate House, School for Advanced Legal Studies and databases such as Scopus and Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA). For a review of archival sciences

literature the researcher used search terms such as ‘digital preservation’, ‘digital records preservation’, ‘digital records authenticity’, ‘trust and digital records’, ‘trusted digital repositories’, ‘TDRs’, ‘Open Archival Information System’, ‘audit and certification standards’, ‘digital records and evidence’ and ‘digital records.’ Articles were selected based on the date, with the most recent reviewed first, and then by the name of the author with an emphasis placed on authors who typically were recognised theorists or practitioners in the field of digital records preservation. The researcher also examined bibliographies, endnotes and footnotes for all sources read in order to identify other relevant sources of information.

For the technology transference literature review, the researcher used library catalogues (UCL and SOAS) and databases such as Scopus and INSPEC. Search terms used included ‘technology transference’, ‘technology use’, ‘developing world and technology’, ‘culture and technology’, ‘ICT and the developing world’, ‘Africa and

technology’, ‘e-Government and Africa’, ‘developmental policies and IT’ and ‘computers and the developing world.’ With the Scopus database she used the analyse feature to select articles based on subject area such as computer science or engineering. In other instances she selected articles initially based on their dates, by choosing the most

recent. However, as she became more familiar with the literature she began selecting articles based on authorship, focusing first on those authors with a recognised

reputation in the area of technology transference. As with the review of archival

literature, the author also used the bibliographies, endnotes and footnotes to point her to other relevant literature.

2.5.3.2 Observational Data

Observational data were collected using non-participant observation. This method requires little participant interaction. Instead, the researcher observes participants with their knowledge and considers the collected information in line with the study’s

research questions.¹⁶⁵ The observational data gathered not only helped the researcher understand the reality of TDR and other operations in the field but also helped her to triangulate interview findings by identifying or corroborating limitations or other

problems. This method was only used for M3 site visits to case study digital repositories (M3(DW)) and East African Community national archives (M3(EAC)), alongside the interviewing process.

Observational data were also collected during site visits to Washington State Digital Archives, the National Archives Service of Finland and the Tanzanian Records and Archives Management Department. During M3(DW) site visits, the author examined how employees carried out digital repository functions such as ingest and cataloguing, recording findings in a research notebook. During the M3 (DW) site visits the researcher also received guided tours of the facility, allowing her to assess in person the

organisational infrastructure and technical capacity of digital repositories, helping her to

165 Alison Jane Pickard, Research Methods in Information (London: Facet Publishing, 2007); Gorman and Clayton, Qualitative Research for the Information Professional., 105.

understand the realities of operating such programmes. These notes were also recorded in a research notebook.

The researcher was not able to collect observational data from the remaining M3 (DW) sites. There was no time at the end of the interview to permit such a visit and she was not able to schedule any follow up visits.

During the RAMD site visit, observational data were only collected from the guided tour, as RAMD did not have a digital repository. The data collected from the site visit were recorded in a research notebook.

Other observational data used in this thesis stems from the author’s involvement in IRMT initiatives. From 2010 to 2013 the researcher served as a Project Officer and consultant with the International Records Management Trust. . During the researcher’s time at as a consultant with IRMT she gained considerable field experience in Africa, which gave her a much greater and more multi-faceted understanding of the digital recordkeeping realities in the region. She has drawn on these experiences with archival repositories and governments in Africa during her research for this study. Of particular value was the researcher’s work with IRMT in 2011 on Managing Records as Reliable Evidence for Information Communication Technology (ICT), e-Government and Freedom of Information in East Africa.¹⁶⁶ This project, which was intended to examine whether records management or recordkeeping requirements were factored into e-Government, ICT and access to information initiatives in the region, allowed the researcher to

participate in high-level scoping studies for Burundi and Rwanda, to ascertain the state of recordkeeping in these countries and to determine whether recordkeeping was

166 International Records Management Trust, ‘Managing Records as Reliable Evidence for ICT/ E-Government and Freedom of Information in East Africa’ (International Records Management Trust, September 2011),

http://irmt.org/portfolio/managing-records-reliable-evidence-ict-e-government-freedom-information-east-africa-2010-%E2%80%93-2011.

factored into ICT, e-Government or Access to Information initiatives. The notes gathered during this research are used when discussing findings related to M1(EAC) and M3(EAC), as supplementary materials which help to illustrate, elucidate and underscore issues identified in this thesis. In those instances where the researcher draws on her own field experience and knowledge to reinforce a point, she will use the expression ‘in her experience’ to clarify the source of her observations for the reader. The data were used with permission of the International Records Management Trust.

2.5.3.3 Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were identified as the most appropriate data collection method for this research, given that a goal of the research was to identify potential assumptions built into TDR standards. Pickard, whose view is corroborated by Hopf, notes this value of interview data when she states: ‘Interviews are usually used when we are seeking […] in-depth data that is specific to the individual…’¹⁶⁷

Given the volume and breadth of data necessary for analysis, the most appropriate interview technique for this study was determined to be the

semi-structured interview. Semi-semi-structured interviews are composed of a preset number of open-ended questions, which allow the researcher to collect enough qualitative data to analyse the responses given by research subjects in a comparative manner.¹⁶⁸ The data generated was transcribed and analysed, with the particular goal of identifying any perceptions or biases, particularly unacknowledged precepts, held by the interviewees.

Several interview questionnaires were developed, based on the parameters of each of the different mimetic categories described earlier in this chapter: M1 (DW) –

167 Pickard, Research Methods in Information. Christel Hopf, ‘5.2. Qualitative Interviews: An Overview’ Companion to Qualitative Research ed. Uwe Flick, Ernst Von Kardoff, and Ines Steinke (California: SAGE Publications, 2005)., 203.

168 Christiane Schmidt, ‘The Analysis of Semi-structured Interviews’, Companion to Qualitative Research ed. Uwe Flick, Ernst Von Kardoff, and Ines Steinke (California: SAGE Publications, 2005)., 253.

Standards Developers , M1 (EAC) – East African Academics and Practitioners, M3 (DW) – Digital Repository Operators and M3 (EAC) – East African National Archives (See

Appendix B). In M1 (DW), the questions sought to elicit the impetus behind the standards and the structuring of the development process. In M1 (EAC), the questions were developed to determine the digital preservation needs of East African Community practitioners. The M3 (DW) questions were intended to understand the requirements for designing and implementing TDRs and the role of TDR standards in the development of digital repositories, allowing the researcher to determine the actual level of TDR standards uptake. The M3 (EAC) interview questions sought to ascertain the realities of managing digital records in an East African context, in particular the level of awareness of and the perceived applicability of TDR standards in that context.

A total of 28 interviews were conducted with 32 interviewees. The discrepancy between number of interviews and number of interviewees stems from the fact that several individuals were interviewed at the same time in one session. The majority of interviews took place between July 2011 and October 2012 but two were carried out in 2013. Of the two interviews conducted in 2013 one was delayed from an earlier

appointment because an interviewee had been unable to meet with the researcher prior to this. The other interview took place later because the author could not travel to the East African Community in order to conduct the interview in person and, since Skype connectivity to mobile phones is poor, the interview was arranged later when both the researcher and the interviewee were in the same city.

The interviews, which averaged about 45 minutes, were recorded using a digital voice recorder. A total of 16 interviews took place in person, and another 12 were conducted using Skype. A list of interviewees can be found in Appendix C.

The following table provides information on the number of interviewees according to the mimetic level to which they apply.

TABLE 2.2 MIMETIC BREAKDOWN OF INTERVIEWEES