Conductos y distribución de aire Conductos

framework that would enable the management of digital records from the point of receipt to their display and use in an archival setting.

3.2.2 Digital Libraries and Open Access

Digital access and preservation were not simply an archival concern. The library community re-examined their practices in light of the challenges posed by the digital environment. These explorations led to the development of the new concept of a digital library. The idea of a digital library was first posited in 1991 but gained wider acceptance within the library community with the launch of the 1994 Digital Libraries Initiatives in the United States.¹⁸³

Definitions varied about what constituted a digital library, but at a workshop at UCLA - in 1996 - two views emerged. Digital libraries were defined as, ‘1. a set of electronic resources and associated technical capabilities for creating, searching and using information’ or ‘2. constructed, collected and organised by (and for) a community of users, and their functional capabilities support the information needs and uses of that community.’¹⁸⁴ These early discussions also sought to define the contents and functions of digital libraries and to clarify the role of the librarian in the digital environment.¹⁸⁵

At the same time as digital libraries were being examined, a debate re-emerged about the question of open access. The topic was first raised in the mid-1960s with the launch of the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), which provided access to

183 Edward Fox, ‘The Digital Libraries Initiatives: Update and Discussion’, Bulletin of the American Society for

Information 26, no. 1 (November 1999), accessed 23 January 2015, http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Oct-99/fox.html.

Edward Fox, Marcos Andre Goncalves, and Rao Shen, Theoretical Foundations for Digital Libraries: The 5S (Societies, Scenarios, Spaces, Structures, Streams) Approaches (California: Morgan and Claypool, 2012)., xiii.

184 Fox et al, Theoretical Foundations for Digital Libraries., 3-4.

185 Ian Rowlands and David Bawden, ‘Digital Libraries: A Conceptual Framework’, Libri 49 (1999): 192–202. David Bawden and Ian Rowlands, ‘Digital Libraries: Assumptions and Concepts’, Libri 49 (1999): 181–91. Lee, ‘Defining Digital Preservation Work'., 33.

computer tapes, copies of source materials, abstracts, bibliographies and thesauri.¹⁸⁶ The drive behind open access was, and remains, to provide: ‘[F]ree online access to scientific and scholarly research literature especially peer-reviewed journals and their pre-prints.’¹⁸⁷

The idea of open access gained new currency amongst the library community as a result of what became known as the ‘serials-crisis’ in the 2000s. The ‘serials-crisis’

stemmed from an increase in journal prices, especially e-journal subscription costs, which rapidly outstripped the financial capacity of academic and mainstream libraries to maintain their collections. A longitudinal study of scholarly journal pricing between 2000-2006 shows the severity of the problem by demonstrating that median prices for biomedical and social science journals rose by 39% in six years, while general retail prices in the marketplace only rose by 16%.¹⁸⁸

In response to this crisis, academics, researchers and librarians began exploring the possibility of making publications freely available online for subsequent re-use, thus subverting the prohibitive cost models used by journal publishers.¹⁸⁹ This approach was formalised in a number of statements, such as the Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities and the Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing, both issued in 2003.

As a result of the ‘serials-crisis’, and in the spirit of open access principles, institutions and professional communities of practice started establishing centralised

186 Peter Suber, ‘Timeline of the Open Access Movement’, 2009, accessed 23 January 2015

http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/timeline.htm. ERIC, ‘50 Years of ERIC’, 2014, accessed 23 January 2015, http://eric.ed.gov/pdf/ERIC_Retrospective.pdf.

187 Suber, ‘Timeline of the Open Access Movement’. Charles W. Bailey, Jr, ‘Chapter 2: What Is Open Access?’, in Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, ed. Neil Jacobs (Oxford: Chandos Publishing, 2006), 13–26., 19. This is where the author discusses the Berlin Declaration.

188 Sonia White and Claire Creaser, ‘Trends in Scholarly Journal Prices 2000-2006’ (Oxford University Press, March 2007)., iv.

189 Jean-Claude Guedon, ‘Chapter 3: Open Access: A Symptom and a Promise’, in Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, ed. Neil Jacobs (Oxford: Chandos Publishing, 2006), 27–38., 28.

print repositories in order to make research data and articles more widely available over the internet. The science community in particular took the lead in this area by creating online repositories such as arXiv to store and make available scholarly research and publications. ¹⁹⁰ University libraries also began to consider ways of increasing access to faculty and student publications by establishing institutional repositories. This approach was formalised in the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC) paper A Case for Institutional Repositories (2002).¹⁹¹

The library community became increasingly concerned with ensuring the ongoing availability of resources in digital libraries and e-print repositories. The CURLS Exemplar for Digital Archives research project (1998-2002), for example, was one of the earliest attempts to develop a strategy to preserve digital resources acquired by digital libraries and repositories.¹⁹²

The preoccupation with preservation was reflected by the open access

community through the Bethesda Statement, issued in 2003. This statement stipulated that publications should not only be freely accessible through the internet, but also deposited in an online repository, which was defined as an ‘[A]cademic institution, scholarly society, government agency, or other well-established organization that seeks to enable open access, unrestricted distribution, interoperability, and long-term

archiving.’¹⁹³

The Berlin Declaration, also issued in 2003, by the open access community addressed the issue of access. It stipulated that institutions that subscribed to open

190 www. http://arxiv.org/

191 Raym Crow, ‘The Case for Institutional Repositories: A SPARC Position Paper’ (The Scholarly Publication and Academic Resources Community, 2002).

192 Consortium of University Research Libraries, ‘CURL - CEDAR Project’, 11 October 2004, 24 January 2015 http://web.archive.org/web/20041011141405/http://www.curl.ac.uk/projects/cedars.html.

193 ‘Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing.’, 20 June 2003, accessed 23 May 2013 http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/bethesda.htm.

access principles should require their researchers to deposit all published articles into their repository and also encourage researchers to publish their findings in open access journals.¹⁹⁴

In addition to a focus on open access, other concerns around digital access and preservation began to emerge, such as the legal and intellectual property implications of migrating digital reference materials from one platform to another.¹⁹⁵ However, the emphasis on open access was pivotal, leading to the development of actual repositories for digital information. Early digital library discussions on the establishment and

operations of digital repositories also played an important role in defining the notion of trusted digital repository, in particular delimiting its functions and activities.