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Municipal use of wastewater takes many forms but almost always involves the use of treated wastewater, although the level of treatment may depend on the use and factors associated with the location (such as infrastructure and available funding). The most common uses include urban greening (i.e. watering urban areas such as parks and verges), irrigation of golf courses, road cleaning, cleaning of other urban infrastructure (e.g. markets) and dust suppression in hot, dry climates. Increasingly wastewater is being treated to quality levels that make it possible for reuse within domestic and commercial properties for such activities as toilet flushing and car washing. The treatment process may occur on-site by recycling the water used within the building, or it may be treated off-site and returned to the original wastewater user, shared between many properties or sold to a third party. It is not easy to categorize all these uses but an attempt has been made to do so in Table 4-5, although, as with previous sections, the emphasis is on the examples rather than the categorization.

Table 4-5. Locations and examples of municipal use of wastewater

Country Reuse Practice Reference

Non-potable domestic use after treatment on-site

Australia In Sydney treatment and recycling takes place in high-rise offices as well as other residential buildings such as retirement homes, where it is used for toilet flushing and landscaping. One such building (1 Bligh Street) treats nearly 100 % of its wastewater and reuses it in the building. This has avoided sewer capacity issues and reduced the building’s freshwater demand by approximately 90 %. The building uses additional wastewater from the city sewer to meet its needs for toilet flushing and for the cooling towers. The system uses a modular membrane bioreactor (MBR) and treats 90 m3_{/day of wastewater.}

Fisher (2012)

Japan In several large cities including Tokyo, regulations require a greywater reuse system or a runoff harvest system for new buildings exceeding a specified floor area. This includes public and private offices, and schools. The reclaimed water is mainly

Kimura and Funamizu (2012)

96

Country Reuse Practice Reference

used for toilet flushing but also for watering plants, fire protection, cooling and car cleaning.

India, Bangalore

Around 10 years ago, the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) mandated that STPs be built and operated in individual residential complexes with 50 or more dwellings, or generating 50 m3_{/day or more of sewage. An additional condition was that}

treated water quality should meet stringent “Urban Reuse Standards” and be reused for toilet flushing, car washing and irrigation within the complex.

Kodavasal (2011a)

Mexico Although they are not formally registered, several dozen private WWTPs in schools, sports clubs and golf courses, treat

wastewater and reuse it for lawn irrigation or toilet flushing. Private reuse is not controlled by the government.

Jiménez- Cisneros (2012)

Non-potable domestic use after treatment off-site China,

Beijing

In Beijing, by 2011, eight out of 16 districts had integrated reclaimed water into their water resource distribution systems. It is utilized for domestic, municipal, industrial and agricultural purposes, and scenic environmental use. The price is

considerably lower than freshwater to encourage its use and is free for irrigation. Household use accounted for 5.4 MCM in 2010, of which 28 % was for toilet flushing. The high cost of water delivery restricts its development.

Chang and Ma (2012)

Australia See Sydney example above where wastewater was tapped from the sewer, treated and used within an apartment block.

Fisher (2012) Potable use – direct and indirect

Singapore Singapore is severely limited in its natural water resources and therefore makes use of advanced wastewater treatment and recycling for industry and indirect potable use. Five ‘NEWater’ factories produce 554,600 m3_{/day of high quality water and this}

is planned to rise to 873,000 m3_{/day by 2020. The water is mainly}

used in the electronics industry and for cooling, but a small proportion is now blended with raw reservoir water, up to a maximum of 2.5 % of the total water quantity. The mixed water is extracted and treated in the normal way prior to being used in the potable supply. The system uses advanced membrane technologies and ultraviolet disinfection.

USEPA and USAID (2012)

India, Bangalore

In Bangalore the in Vrishabhavathi Valley (V Valley) ‘Water Recycle and Reuse’ project is designed to provide highly treated water to the Tippegondanahalli (TG Halli) reservoir, which is a domestic water source for the city. Under the scheme, 200 MLD of urban wastewater will go through tertiary treatment and disinfection with chlorine at V Valley STP. It will then be pumped to the Tavarekere advanced treatment facility, where it will pass through ultrafiltration membranes and a granular activated carbon adsorption filter followed by low dose of terminal

Kelkar et al. (2012)

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Country Reuse Practice Reference

chlorination. Financing for V Valley was 30 % from the government under JNNURM and 70 % from the private

contractor in a Build-Own-Operate Public-private Partnership for 15 years.

Namibia Veolia, together with two international partners, operates the Namibia-based Goreangab wastewater reuse plant, where potable-grade water is produced for the City of Windhoek. The plant has been operating for 12 years and supplies

5.5 million m3_{/year, almost a quarter of the city’s total water}

demand. Borralho (2013); Lahnsteiner and Lempert (2007) Non-domestic urban uses (urban greening; road cleaning; dust suppression etc.)

Australia Barwon Water, a government owned water authority operating in Victoria, supplies recycled water from five of its nine water reclamation plants (WRP). The water is used for a number of commercial and municipal uses, including: irrigating golf courses, sporting grounds, public open spaces, vineyards, hydroponic tomatoes, potatoes, turf and flower farms; and for dust

suppression for road and construction works. The users construct the distribution network and pay Barwon Water to service it. Usually one large company funds this and charges a network fee to smaller users. This arrangement is uncommon in Australia as most recycled water schemes are wholly owned and operated either by the water authority or a private owner. The price of water covers the cost of production; no additional profit margin is included.

Jones (2012)

China, Beijing

In Beijing, by 2011, eight out of 16 districts have integrated reclaimed water into their water distribution systems. Municipal water is used for urban landscaping and road cleaning. It totals approximately 420 MCM/year but lack of infrastructure and the need for costly road transport limits use.

Chang and Ma (2012)

Mexico The local water and wastewater utilities in Mexico City have implemented various projects to reuse wastewater for municipal and industrial purposes since 1956. (See other sections e.g. environmental flows and industrial use for more details).

Jiménez- Cisneros (2012)

Philippines The Muntinlupa Public Market, in Metro Manila, is one of the largest public markets in the area with 1,448 stalls. The wastewater from markets tends to be very concentrated and land available for treatment is generally small. In 2006 a treatment and recycling facility was constructed and the water used for flushing toilets, watering plants and street cleaning. The system treats 210 m3_{/day of wastewater, of which 50 % is}

discharged to Laguna de Bay Lake and 50 % is reused. The same technology is being used in other locations in the Philippines.

Jochico and Lapus (2012)

Spain In Costa-Brava, reclaimed water is used for traditional irrigation, street washing, fire hydrants, street cleaning, parks and

Mujeriego and Sala (2012)

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Country Reuse Practice Reference

environmental flows. The WRP of Tossa de Mar has a capacity of 840 m3_{/day, which represents 13 % of the potable water use}

during the peak tourist season. Initially water was collected by tanker and distributed around the city but there is now a 5.7 km distribution network.

India, Bangalore

Lalbagh Park and Cubbon Park are two of the most important parks in Bangalore, with Lalbagh also being the largest. They both suffered water shortages, so tertiary STPs were constructed to treat 1.5 MLD each. Cubbon Park STP utilizes membrane technology and disinfection. Lalbagh Park STP uses extended aeration, filtration and UV disinfection. Both STPs feed water to sprinkler systems.

BWSSB (2015)