WLB and well-being are the main foci of my study. The link between the two areas is well- established, as can be seen through the following comment from Amstad et al. (2011: 152):
‘Work–family conflict is often considered to be a potential source of stress that has negative effects on well-being and behaviour (e.g., Geurts, Kompier, Roxburgh and Houtman, 2003)’.
Hence, WLB conflict as a result of combining commitments can lead to an excess of
demands and may adversely impact on well-being. Cinamon (2006: 205) conducted research with University students in Israel and drew from different aspects of Westerns literature to consider how well-being is influenced by role conflict. The findings depict how the role of ‘personal disposition’ and ‘self-efficacy’ form a link between predicted ability of individuals to manage WFC. This is found to reflect the influence of primary socialisation and roles within a dual career family, with gender seen as important with women most likely believe they must manage diverse roles (Gerson, 2009).
Another significant intersection related to WLB and well-being relates to lack of sleep. Crain et al. (2014) examine the importance of sleep and WLB utilising methods associated with
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the conservation of resources theory, connecting the loss of the resources with increase in stress. Boyd et al. (2016: 471) consider those undertaking second jobs due to financial needs and find limitations in the demands individuals are able to manage, without strain upon well-being. The consequences identified include a rise in ‘emotional exhaustion’ linked with the presence of the second job, with physical symptoms and reduced life satisfaction. Boyd et al. (2016: 473-4) describe this pattern as:
‘…conflict from each of the jobs an individual holds appears to represent an
independent stressor that interacts with other sources of conflict to influence well- being’
This demonstrates how demands upon individuals lead to a depletion of their time and energy, which influences well-being opportunities. Crain et al. (2014) adapt Frone’s (2003) theory of strain and the impacts upon WFC. They identified: time based strain (associated with long working hours); strain based (for example stressful conditions, such as working with a challenging team member); and behaviour based conflict (In terms of conflicting roles, such as a work role and a home role). Boyd et al. (2016: 464) identify conflicting roles as ‘counter-productive’ to one another with WFC viewed negatively in terms of a less committed work force, stressed workers and negative well-being experiences. Arguably when considering the role of the women undertaking work-based learning and having to meet the needs of their family they will potentially experience all of these strains.
Parenting, WLB and well-being are inter-connected and represent a complexity that is frequently discussed but rarely solved. Therefore, parents persistently experience struggling with WLB disequilibrium as a result of commitments to workplace and family, with the potential for negative well-being implications. There are tangible and less visible emotional
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signs, for example, Jarvis and Pratt (2006) evidenced ‘parental guilt’ amongst dual career families, who wanted to provide ‘quality’ parenting, but experiencing constant time pressure. Wattis et al. (2012) argue that when parents manage practically they can be emotionally strained at feeling they might not be offering enough, potentially compromising their well-being.
Both WLB and well-being relate to the Conservation of Resource (COR) theory (Huffman et al., 2013). Huffman et al. (2012) considered how individuals work to provide objects, in terms of meeting needs and maintaining personal circumstances. However, behind the focus on survival needs, lies a complex pattern, associated with emotional needs. Many individuals equate employment with status, identity and purpose, also associated with happiness and emotional well-being. Huffman et al. (2013: 776) identify time shortage as fundamental to WLB and well-being, with time based work-family conflict derived from ‘excessive amounts of time in one role’. Van Der Lippe et al. (2006:305) in comparing the experiences of men and women, identify the workplace to be the source of pressure, stress and potential burn out, creating less time for ‘family obligations’. Jarvis (2005) considers non-financial variables and wellbeing, finding time taken from individuals creating pressured routines with adverse effects, including difficulties in co-ordination of domestic demands. Current trends towards the “24/7” service economy create widespread depletion of shared ‘time off’ (Reichwein and Gow, 2013). Bittman (2005: 16) found Sunday working to deplete ‘catch-up’ and ‘family time’ reducing the potential to undertake distinct family based, leisure activity, while eroding opportunity for both rest and time together. For adult learners’ independent study often takes place opportunistically including weekends, so reducing distinct free time and leading to potential reductions in WLB and well-being.
70 2.5: Summary:
In this chapter, I have outlined the key concepts that will form the basis for my study. I have examined WLB definitions and surrounding debate and policy, including some evaluation of effectiveness. I have also considered key areas including overlap, overspill and time,
exploring the importance of gender distinction, as women form the focus of my study. I have also examined well-being once more in relation to variation in definitions and social construction, also the influence of policy. The review has included a wide range of sources, although the research has mainly focused upon a Global North perspective, with a UK focus in many examples and where possible local studies included. I have considered the
intersection between WLB and well-being, in terms of their impact upon each other. As the research will focus upon women learners, I have also drawn from literature in this field. In the following Chapter I will consider research methodology and theoretical approach, the research aims and objectives, which are derived from reviewing existing studies of both WLB and well-being.
71 Chapter Three Research paradigm and approach 3.1 Introduction:
In Chapters One and Two, I outlined the context and rationale for this study, and considered relevant literature that informs this thesis. In this chapter, I provide the theoretical
framework that informed this study and the methodological approach, (social
constructionism, from a realist perspective), and explore the micro and macro aspects to the approach. I will consider the influence of feminist approaches on the development of this study, exploring knowledge and power, and public and private spheres in relation to space and identity. The participants’ views are critical and so the importance of their voices will be included throughout the research process and representation of findings. Given this theoretical approach, qualitative methodology will be engaged with, including a review of the merits of semi-structured interviews and focus groups. In this chapter, I will also
consider ethical issues I faced, the research location, including the choice and recruitment of participants and an overview of those involved. Finally, there will be a brief account of limitations, which will be considered more fully in Chapter Seven. I begin with the research aim and objectives.
3.2: Aim and Research Objectives (RO)
The aim of this research was developed through an extensive review of literature around WLB and well-being, and is to explore women’s everyday experiences of work-life balance and well-being whilst combining, higher education and care for kin in a town in North West England.
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RO1: To examine how women experience work-life balance whilst working, studying for a degree and caring for family
RO2: To explore women’s perceptions of well-being whilst combining employment, higher education and caring
RO3: To establish how women manage conflict with regards to work-life balance and well- being within a higher education context
RO4: To develop a new understanding of how women manage to negotiate working, higher educational study and caring responsibilities.