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Donald Super (1957) designed a developmental model, which puts emphasis on the interaction between personal experiences and occupational preferences in the development of one’s self concept (Betz, 1994). The progression of this approach to developing careers can be traced in its name change from the original Career Development Theory to Developmental Self-Concept Theory, to the current Life-Span, Life-Space Theory (Savickas, 1997). The work of Super includes three interrelated theories; the life-span theory, life-space theory and self-concept theory.

2.5.3.1 Self-Concept Theory

According to Super, self-concept changes over time and is born out of experience – as a result, career development becomes a continuous life-long process (Super, Savickas & Super, 1996; Helwig, 2008). Super influenced the idea that developing a sense of self and realising that people develop and transform over time is important when planning a career. Self-concept has to do with how individuals see themselves (Super, 1957) – it is defined as “the constellation of self attributes considered by the individual to be vocationally relevant” (Super, 1963, p. 20). Vocational self-concept develops through physical and mental growth, observations of work, identification with working adult, general environments and general experiences (Super, 1990). Perceptions of one’s persona may influence confidence about occupation, which would allow for the realisation of self-concept (Giannantonio & Hurley-Hanson, 2006).

Internal and external situational conditions largely determine the development of self-concept (Brown & Brooks, 2002). The assumption of this theory is that the more an individual’s self- concept is in line with the chosen career, the more he/she will attain job satisfaction. Career counselling would then be relevant if it assists the client to look ahead and do a thorough

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introspection of the self, to develop the self and choose suitable and viable opportunities to become the person he/she would want to become.

2.5.3.2 Life-Space Theory

According to Super, there are different areas or life spaces that help make a person who they are, and that situate an individual according to a his/her social context across the life span (Super, 1990). Super proposed nine main life roles as most common; namely parent, homemaker, worker, citizen, leisure, child, spouse, student and pensioner (Super, 1990). He suggests that these roles are being played out in the home, community, school and workplace. The life space concept suggests that people involved in our lives have a great impact on who we are. This theory provides that people make career decisions, based on the many roles they occupy at any given stage in their lives. A job as a hairdresser might have a different meaning for an unemployed young adult, who play significant roles that include homemaker, parent and spouse – relative to the meaning it may have to a graduate, whose significant roles include student, child and entrepreneur. Many people assume more than one core roles which are fundamental to life-satisfaction and personal identity. An understanding of roles, including the identification of important roles assumed at a given point in time is crucial in understanding how the social context impacts on career development.

2.5.3.3 Life-Span Theory

Super’s theory proposes that individual progress is measured through five stages of career development across one’s life span (Super et al., 1996; Zunker, 1998). These life stages are not biologically determined but are influenced by social and psychological factors (Super, 1990). The stages are aligned with chronological age; which includes growth (birth to 14 years), exploration (14 to 25 years), establishment (25 to 45 years), maintenance (45 to 65 years), and disengagement (65 years and above). With each stage there are developmental tasks to be completed – failure to do so might lead to disruption at a later stage.

Super (1951) asserts that career maturity is measured by a mastery of developmental tasks across the five stages of career development. He further suggests that career maturity is more

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related to intelligence rather than age. Career maturity refers to an individual’s preparedness to make well-versed, age appropriate career decisions (Savickas, 1994) – decisions that are both logical and dependable over time (Levinson, Ohler, Caswell & Kiewra, 1998). It also refers to the ability to develop successful career plans (Super, 1980) and to manage a career (Talib, Salleh, Amat, Ghavifekr & Ariff, 2015). Career maturity is one concept that is of high importance in the field of vocational psychology. Super (1951) points out the various traits of career maturity as planning, accepting responsibility and awareness of various aspects of a preferred vocation. Super’s (1951) study that investigated the career maturity of the ninth-grade students found that vocational maturity of the ninth grade students was based on their knowledge of an occupation, planning and interest on the career, and these factors made the ninth-grade student more successful as young adults.

There are six dimensions relevant and appropriate for career maturity development in adolescents (Super, 1974): these include orientation to vocational choice, information and planning regarding future career decisions, consistency of vocational preferences, crystallisation of traits, vocational independence, as well as knowledge of vocational preferences. The nature of the career pattern is determined by the socioeconomic level of the individual, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics and career maturity, as well as opportunities to which he or she is exposed (Brown, 2012). The factors we often have no control of determine the course of our lives; although anyone can attain any goal if he or she tries hard enough. Success in coping with demands at any given time in one’s life career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with the demands (Brown, 2012). Brown further suggests that this theory can be used as a basis for career counselling, with the focus on the development of career maturity.

From all these theories we learn that assessments are crucial in the discovery of self and in providing information about self. The personality, work environment, learning experiences, career information of an individual must be linked to career choice to ensure accurate self- knowledge and career satisfaction. Also, the important lesson from these theories is that understanding our current roles, and our life stages shapes the career decision we make. Positively developing career self-concept through role models currently in the working world, observations, mental and physical growth can lead to positive career outcomes.

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The career development theories discussed has shed some light on career choice and development from different perspectives. No one theory gives a comprehensive explanation of career development. It becomes the responsibility of teachers, practitioners, policy makers, and curriculum developers to find ways to make career development inclusive and comprehensive.