MARCO NORMATIVO VIGENTE DE LA GESTIÓN COLECTIVA EN LA

After the transition to democracy the South African education system was expected to develop a strategy that would bring about a turnaround in the education system, and foster nation building to promote democracy and eliminate poverty among the poor (Taylor & Van der Berg, 2011). South Africa has a high number of unemployed people, is contending with poverty, and has a huge number of unskilled people (Yu, 2013). The school system has transformed since the advent of democracy. Black learners, who were previously marginalised, have since started attending private schools – however, the majority of learners are still attending schools in townships and in rural areas. Most schools in South Africa are considered dysfunctional (Steyn, 2018); and have been declared a national crisis and disaster by the Department of Basic Education (Nkosi, 2016; Moeketsi, 2013). Because of its socio-political history, South Africa has inherited employment and educational inequalities of the past, which she continues to grapple with and affects the practice and theory of career development (Watson, McMahon & Longe, 2011). To this end, Hughes asserts that:

Undoubtable young people from disadvantaged backgrounds are at a distinct disadvantage as compared to those who attend self-governing schools where investment in career education is of precedence. More needs to be done urgently to rectify this situation in the schooling system (Hughes, 2016). Schools in disadvantaged communities in South Africa do not provide

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effective career guidance programmes to learners (Maree & Beck, 2004). Career guidance, particularly at previously-disadvantaged schools, continues to have inadequate services and is overlooked (Abrahams, Jano & Van Lill, 2015). Schools in socio-economically disadvantaged communities are staffed with teachers who do not have adequate specialisation in career guidance, and LO lessons are not taken seriously by teachers and learners – because unlike other subjects, LO is not examined externally (Ngoepe, Mojapelo, Ngoepe & Van der Walt, 2017). Marks allocated to LO comes from school-based assessments of assignments and projects, there are no written exams and it is not included in the point system required for the university entrance (Masuku, 2018).

The challenges facing the Department of Basic Education in most poor communities include poor school management, less teaching resources, inadequate provision of career counselling, less time spent at school by both teachers and learners, and ineffective communication among members of management (Legotlo, 2014). According to Moeketsi (2013), schools situated in low socio-economic contexts are challenged by the systematic inefficiency and dysfunction – that is 80 percent of schools in black townships, rural and farm areas do not have basic services such as clean water, electricity, decent classrooms, well-resourced libraries, adequate number of qualified teachers, or functioning school-governing bodies.

Mokeki (2018) further asserts that the challenges facing career development services in the education system are:

• Unequal access to quality career information and government support services; • Lack of adequate career services within the schooling system;

• Poor quality of services and lack of professionalism; and • Lack of teacher training and intermediaries resourcing.

Career guidance in schools from disadvantaged communities in South Africa is important, particularly to learners whose parents are unemployed, and with limited formal education. The biggest challenge that South Africa is currently facing is breaking these intergenerational trends (Makoni, 2010). Learners from disadvantaged communities do not have access to information, due to the unavailability of libraries and lack of access to internet services – as a result, these learners rely on information provided by their teachers, relatives, and family members for their career choice (Ngoepe, et al., 2017).

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The disadvantaged contexts that leaners find themselves in constrain their career development and impact negatively on their self-efficacy, and limit opportunities that they would otherwise seize. Therefore, this leaves these adolescents with a negative attitude towards work and role models in their communities (Seabi, Alexander & Maite, 2010). Self-efficacy refers to a person’s beliefs about his/her ability to organise and execute actions required to achieve a particular task (Artino, 2012).

Inadequate parental involvement in learners’ career development is a challenge that most learners contend with, as these leaners are not privy to the necessary information, guidance and financial support that would encourage them to further their career aspirations. The findings of a study conducted by Costa and Faria (2017) on parenting and parental involvement in the activities of their secondary school learners have shown that the demands of education is high, and parents’ do not have enough time to monitor the activities of their children, and as a result learners’ independence and self-determination proved to be challenges affecting learners’ activities in school.

Another pressing issue affecting adolescents from low socio-economic communities is the dysfunctional beliefs or ideas that these adolescents hold on career development, known as career myths, which are informed by inaccurate information. Dysfunctional beliefs are beliefs that constrain career decision making as a result of unfavourable consequences (Krumboltz, 1990). Career myths can have negative consequences on career development and career decision-making – to implement career development effectively, learners’ beliefs about career decision-making must be identified, questioned and confronted (Albein & Naidoo, 2017).

A study conducted by Albein and Naidoo (2017), on addressing the career myths held by adolescents from disadvantaged contexts in South Africa identified the following levels of career myths:

1. Individual-level career myths - The adolescents believed that an individual’s characteristic should be paired to an occupation through assessments. There were five misconceptions at individual level:

• The study participants had an expectation to be told what they needed to know (a belief in what they know) – instead of engaging in the process of self-exploration;

• The participants presented information on application procedures, and believed that one should take enough time to make a career choice, before submitting an application,

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because no changes would be accepted by the institutions once the application has been processed;

• The participants believed that waiting for the improved final examination mark before applying to tertiary institutions, will increase their chances of being accepted;

• The participants believed that their application would still be considered even after the closing date;

• The participants believed that one must apply his/her mind before applying at tertiary institutions, because choosing a career is a life-time decision, that once made, cannot be changed. Changing careers was associated with failure.

2. Social-level career myths - The participants in the study believed that social standards are more important when choosing a career. The financial, security, materialistic status were linked to the self-beliefs of participants.

• The value of a career, for participants, was not based on interests, abilities and aptitude, but by the amount of money that an individual would earn.

3. Environmental-societal level career myths - The participants believed that environmental factors act as barriers that make it difficult for them to make wise career choices.

• The participants believed that western lifestyle will make them forget their tradition and cultures, and that their morals will be destroyed.

According to Robinson and Diale (2017), it is important to consider the environmental context of an individual, which includes their socio-economic status such as being poor and the level of education, as these serve as barriers for learners to pursue their career aspirations. Career aspiration is defined as the individuals’ hopes and dreams to pursue a career in a certain field (Robinson & Diale, 2017). In South Africa there are two key social factors that have a bearing on the career aspirations of learners from disadvantaged backgrounds (Watson, McMahon & Longe, 2011):

• Family - learners choose occupations that are consistent with those of their parents, or to please their parents.

• School - the schools are in a good position to promote the career ambitions of learners through the application of curriculum and career guidance programmes. The schools

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can also invite respected role models to come and address the learners.

The barriers to the career development of learners from disadvantaged contexts include limited self-awareness, owing to lack of access to career guidance and counselling, services to career information, and the lack of exposure to the world of work (Albein & Naidoo, 2017). Shefer (2011) regards social influences such as negative peer pressure (e.g. involvement with gangs, substance abuse, and risky sexual behaviour) as barriers to career development for learners in deprived socio-economic contexts. Taking into consideration the township context – that is the location that is under-developed and occupied by predominantly black occupants, career development might not be linked to positive values, such as working hard to achieve one’s career goals – because in such contexts, crime seems to be a lucrative business that is easy to conduct (Albein & Naidoo, 2017). A key challenge in career development is improving services that are planned and facilitated between government and non-government organisations, such as education, labour and various educational sectors (DHET, 2017).

3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRANSITION OF DISADVANTAGED GRADE 12