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After the adjustment of China’s African policy, emphasis was put on cooper- ation, bilateralism, and a win-win strategy, followed by a change in China’s aid pattern, from unitary aid to multiple forms of aid, such as government deducted-interest loans, aid combined with co-investment, and grants. Nat- urally, China’s African policy has its own strategic aim, yet one of its starting points was to help African countries eliminate poverty and consolidate their independence. In other words, co-development was the most important prin- ciple, and Chinese-African cooperation clearly follows this principle.

From the early 1980s to the mid-1990s, Africa experienced a process of marginalization, expressed as a decrease in investment and an increase in debts. From 1980 to 1990, although Africa was undergoing structural adjustments due to Western pressure, 43 of 139 British companies withdrew from Africa.57

Japan also held a pessimistic view of Africa, and the number of its companies in Kenya dropped from fifteen to two in the 1980s. The total debt of sub-Saharan Africa was $6 billion in 1970; that figure grew to $84.3 billion in 1980. After the Cold War and the dismemberment of the Soviet Union, the importance of Africa’s strategic position greatly decreased, contributing to its further mar- ginalization. African debt reached $200.4 billion in 1993 and $210.7 billion in 1994, equal to 82.8 percent of its GNP in 1994, as well as 254.5 percent of its export earnings. According to a 1995 World Bank report, the debt-export ratio of 28 African countries was over 200 to 1 at the end of 1994.58

Change in Aid

At the Tokyo International Conference on African Development held in 1993, African countries suggested that foreign investment based on development

and production was more effective than traditional aid.59_{China’s early grant}

assistance accrued a significant return from its African counterparts: China became a member of the United Nations (UN).60_{Grants, however, hardly}

changed the reality of poverty. As Hu Yaobang pointed out in 1982, “As for economic assistance, the method of sheer gift is disadvantageous to both sides, judging from historical experience.”61_{Therefore, during the late 1980s}

and early 1990s, China underwent a foreign trade and aid reform.

In 1987, a Togo sugar plant assisted by the Chinese had a shortage of tech- nicians and experienced managers. Chinese experts took over, and the plant began to run effectively. The Togolese government praised the remarkable increase in enterprise.62_{This combination of China’s assistance and joint-}

investment cooperation gradually spread to other China-aided enterprises. In 1991, the Malian government decided to privatize the Segu Textile Plant, a Chinese aid project. After negotiation, however, the Malian government trans- ferred 80 percent of its shares to a Chinese company with the condition that the company pay its debts. Since then the company has been running smoothly, valued in 1996 at 7.6 billion African francs.63_{In 2003, China can-}

celled Mali’s debt of 37 billion African francs.64

In late 1995, after three years of experimentation, the Chinese govern- ment put into effect its interest-deducted loan scheme.65_{Vice Premier Zhu}

and Vice Premier Li visited thirteen African countries during that year to explain China’s new foreign aid policy. A year later, China signed agreements to give low-interest loans to sixteen African countries.66_{The new form of aid}

was gradually accepted. In 2000, the FOCAC implemented a new stage of bilateral relations; in response, China promised to relieve African debt. In 2002, China signed agreements with 31 African countries to relieve 156 debts, the sum reaching RMB 1.05 billion ($145 million).67_{As of the end of 2007,}

the figure had increased to RMB 10.9 billion.68_{According to the PRC’s Min-}

istry of Commerce, as of March 2008 China had forgiven the debt of thirty- two African countries, honoring pledges made at the FOCAC Beijing summit in 2006.

Exchange of Development Experience

Providing seminars is another way China helps African countries train their professionals. For example, the “Seminar on Economic Reform and Devel- opment Strategies” was held in 2003; participants included twenty-two administrators from different economic or financial units in sixteen African countries, together with seven officials from the African Development Bank. Both sides exchanged ideas on development, and African participants learned more about China’s ongoing reform.

Nigerian historian Femi Akomolafe recognizes that “China’s rapid eco- nomic transformation holds special lessons for those in Africa. Whilst the Chinese opted for an indigenous solution to their economic backwardness . . . China’s economic performance is nothing short of a miracle. It shows what a people with confidence, determination and vision can achieve.”69

The Chinese government has also frequently invited African diplomats to visit China. The “Understanding China Symposium” was first designed in 1996 specifically for young African diplomats. The China Foreign Affairs Uni- versity ran the symposium for 9 years (1996–2004) for participants from more than 130 countries and 9 international organizations. One-hundred sixty-one diplomats from African countries having diplomatic relations with China attended nine symposia; ten African regional organizations also par- ticipated. The symposia included lectures on Chinese history, culture, and arts, and a tour of both rich and poor regions. From 2001 on, Peking Univer- sity also ran various seminars and training courses for African diplomats and economic administrators. The School of Government at Peking University has run several symposia for African diplomats from English-, French-, and Arabic-speaking countries; a recent one was held from August to October 2007, with thirty-five participants from fourteen French-speaking countries. The Chinese government also holds seminars to train African professionals. In the first half of 2007, the Chinese government held 93 such training sem- inars, with 2,241 trainees from 49 African countries. According to its action plan, China will have trained 15,000 Africans between 2007 and 2009.70

This approach has been praised by African governments such as Nigeria, Mozambique, Uganda, Madagascar, Ethiopia, South Africa, and Zambia. For example, in 2005, Sudanese officials expressed their thanks for China’s train- ing program for Sudanese administrators in economic management, which was attended by senior officials from the Sudanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Finance and International Cooperation. About forty Sudanese went to China for training in their respective fields.71

Co-development and Bilateralism

The most impressive demonstrations of Chinese-African economic cooper- ation have been China’s tariff relief for African exports, leading to increased trade between China and Africa. Vice Minister of Commerce Wei Jianguo said in November 2007, “From January to September, 2007, Chinese-African trade volume was 52.3 billion US dollars and the figure for the whole year is expected to reach 70 billion US dollars. Under the zero-tariff category, by the first half of 2007, China had imported commodities worth 440 million US dollars from Africa.”72_{These increases indicate the positive impact of the}

Chinese policy of promoting African exports to China. The original 199 zero- tariff African goods have increased to 454 types of goods from 26 of the least developed countries in Africa. In 2005, about 12,400 African businessmen came to the 97th Guangzhou Trade Fair, where the volume of business trans- actions totaled $1.7 billion. From January to September 2005, thirty African countries’ trade with China totaled more than $100 million, while nine other countries’ trade with China reached more than $1 billion.73

In 2000, Chinese-African trade volumes exceeded $10 billion ($10.598 bil- lion), and China’s imports from Africa surpassed its exports to Africa ($5.5 bil- lion versus 5.04 billion).74_{Chinese-African trade reached about $30 billion in}

2004, and China’s imports from Africa were again more than its exports to the continent ($15.6 billion versus $13.8 billion).75_{This trade reached $39.75 bil-}

lion in 2005, with imports again exceeding exports.76_{In 2006, Chinese-African}

trade reached $55.46 billion, an increase of 39.6 percent. Imports from Africa ($28.77 billion) again surpassed Chinese exports to Africa ($26.69 billion).77

According to Ministry of Commerce statistics, it took twenty years for Chinese-African trade to increase from $100 million to $1 billion, and another twenty years to reach $10 billion, but only six years to reach $55.5 billion. From January to September 2007, Chinese-African trade volume was $52.3 bil- lion, and the figure for the whole year was expected to reach $70 billion.78

With such trade increases, Chinese export goods have become better suited to Africa. Sales of machines, electronics, and new high-tech goods have grown rapidly, totaling more than half of the value of China’s exports to Africa. China’s aid emphasizes the combination of technical and economic support and the transfer of technology with commodities.79_{For example, China has}

provided much of the technology necessary for space launches and in-orbit services and has even trained Nigerian command and control operators. While Nigeria acquired satellite technology, China also gained from the col- laboration by burnishing its credentials as a reliable player in the interna- tional commercial satellite market.80_{China also sent oil expert and engineer}

Wang Qiming of Daqin to the Sudan to provide African engineers with new technology that assists with the best pumping practices for seemingly exhausted oilfields.81_{This framework for China’s aid—based on the principles}

of sustainability and mutual benefit rather than charity—has proven benefi- cial to African development.82

Characteristics

Chinese-African relations are characterized by summit diplomacy, equality, co-development, and cooperation.83_{Such summit diplomacy cannot be seen}

China and other continents. Although the principle of equality has been advocated among individuals in modern times, there is no mention of it in international relations. The equality in Chinese-African relations is a model for international relations. Equality means respect for sovereignty, mutual benefit, discussion, and coordination. A unique feature of China’s foreign policy is the principle of noninterference in the internal affairs of other coun- tries. Mutual benefit and co-development are likewise features in Chinese- African relations, their purpose being to improve Africa’s ability to self-develop. The most impressive characteristic of the Chinese-African rela- tionship is the standardized mechanism of cooperation, for example, FOCAC and its follow-up actions.