COORDINADOR DE LA COMISION DE EDUCACION Y CULTURA

For example Óðinn, Hermes/Mercurius, Rudra (India). The answer is that the cultic anti-demon armies were allowed to steal at certain times of the year in con- nection with cultic feast-seasons. They were dependent of this for their fournish- ing (Cf. Christmas gifts). In Northern Germany and Denmark Axel Olrik has demonstrated that people at the time of Jul/Yule/Christmas also during later times sacrificed hams et c., and also calfs being let loose for “herremanden“, i.e. Óðinn. The ham was said to disappear into the air and the calf never was found. The only explanation these “gifts” never were refound is due to human collectors of the gifts. (Höfler 1934, p.121 f ).

That ordinary thieves have been included is a later idea. The Langobardic law has got special rules about the so called Walapaus, meaning an organization has the right to steal at certain times and also to apply physical violence. In Sweden the Öjabusar had a similar right et c.

Oldnordic men’s names on—þjófr’thief ’ are not uncommon. Most of all they appear as Valþjófr, but later variants are e.g. Eyþjófr and Geirþjófr. These are hon- ourable names of warriors and they most probably were cultic warriors. (The

‘Val-thief ’,’stealer of the val’ who consists of the fallen fighters, indeed is magnifi- cient!) (Höfler 1934, p.257 ff.) To this might be added that the Spartan wolf- units could survive only in this way. (Johanssons 1986) Certain interpreters prefer to relate—þjófr with the Ogmc theów ‘soldier’ and mean this was imported from OE. Höfler argues that this is less probable. Names meaning ‘soldier’ any- how might have a cultic meaning, because with the Heruls the young, newely ini- tiated, were called just ‘soldiers’—it was the first degree of their cultic league. Procopius tells about this. (Höfler 1934, p. 267)

The above gives the conclusion, that the initiation to Óðin means a symbolic, ritual hanging while a sacrifice is a real hanging. In both cases scratches are made also with a spear—Gungner—or a substitute being to weak to inflict harm. There are especially three narrower areas where it is interesting to take a closer look on what happens and what the meaning is with the acts performed.It deals about:

1. King’s sacrifice for good wind or good harwest

2. Personal initiation of a warrior to Óðinn and to other deities 3. Cult- and warrior’s—leagues in general and what they are dealing with.

In this connection there is reason to approach the Helgikviðae and their con- nection with as well Fj@trlund as the Semnonenhain.

Let us start with some practically documented examples from later time. A medieval description of “Todesheer” gives an insight in the degree of organization and awareness in this cult. It should be noted that it in no way primarily is a real cultic rite being depicted here, but that it deals with later interpretations of the original cultic community of the “immortal” initiated, who in the minds of those non-initiated indeed were living dead. It goes about the death army of Rudra or Mercurius, about the Einhärjar of Óðinn and maybe the Hadjings of Freja. At their more official performances they of course already then in cultic plays used antropomorph and teriomorph masks, and so they also are reported to have done in fighting, as shall be demonstrated later on.

A telling by Agricola:

Ich habe neben andern gehört/vom dem Wirdigen herrn Johann Kennerer Pfarrherr zu Mansfeld/seines alters vber achzig jar/das zu Eisleben/vnd in gantzen land zu Mansfeld/das wütend heere (also haben sie es genennet) fürüber gezogen sey/alle jar auff den Fasnacht Donnerstag/und die Leut sind zugelauffen/und haben darauff gewartet/nit anders/als solt ein grosser mechtiger Keyser oder König fürüber ziehen. Vor dem hauffen ist

ein alter Mann hergegangen/mit einem weissen Stabe/der hat sich selbs den trewen Eckhart geheissen/Dieser alter Mann hat die Leute heissen aus dem wege weichen/hat auch etliche leute heissen gar heim gehen/sie würden sonst schaden nehmen/Nach diesem man haben etliche geritten/etliche gegangen/und sind Leute gesehen worden/die newlich an den orten gestor- ben waren/auch der eins teils noch lebten. Einer hat geritten auff einem Pferde mit zweien füssen. Der ander ist auff einem Rade gebunden gele- gen/vnd das radt ist von jm selbs vmbgelauffen. Der dritte hat einen schenkel vber die achsel genommen/vnd hat gleich sehr gelauffen. Ein ander hat kein Kopff gehabt/vnd der stück on massen. In Franken ist noch newlich gesehen/Zu Heidelberg am Nekar/hat mans offt im jar gesehen/wie man mich berichtet hat. (Höfler 1934, p.38 f.)

Here you should specially note “master Eckhart” preceeding the procession as herald and warner wearing a staff, as we earlier attributed to the goðe, to scare away curious people. This is probably an original function since the cult was secret and had an interest in keeping the secrecy in front of ordinary people. All young boys were by no means initiated to Odinistic warriors but rather quite few. In the cult aiming for fertility more people were involved as parttakers, of course. The here described occurence was by all probability meant for a broader pub- licum, since it was a carnival, but how many that originally were allowed to watch everything is an open question. There is also probably another function of this master Eckhart, trying to keep the activities away from clerical observers since this was essentially something the church, and hence the officials, indeed dis- liked, and of course youngsters could suffer mental harm of seeing this and so were chased for home.

Two kind of follows are reported with slightly different character:

1. The wild army—the death-army 2. The wild hunt

Concerning teriomorph hamrs may be told that Óðinn also is called Hrosshársgrani and Jalkr, which indicate that he can have had a horse-hamr,says Höfler, but on the other hand I think it could just refer to his horse. The horses in the army/hunt can have everything from two to eight legs (also one leg is indeed reported). (Höfler 1934, p.38 ff.) The eight-legged horse is much older than Óðinn. (Cf. Søren Nancke-Krogh, Schamanens hest) The Nordic Helhest is described as a three-legged horse.(Grimm,DM, p.704; Fr.Meyer Schleswig- Holsteiner Sagen, p.78 f ) Palnajaegeren on Funen, i.e. Óðinn, could appear at blacksmiths during the twelve days from Christmas and everybody must have

forged three hoof-seems, lying ready on the steed—if not so the blacksmith could reckon with a less agreable future. This refers of course to the three-legged Helhest. This tradition is however older than the cult of Óðinn and parallels exist in Celtic England and among the Basques. Besides also in all Germany.

The dog is old in the death-cult and occurs already in Egypt (Anubis). In a description from Kerpen in Rheinland it is spoken of: “One tied on a wheel, one with a dog’s head barking and one with a cat’s head hissing.” (Höfler 1934, p.42) This associates automatically to Óðinn and Freja and solar cult. We have no cat- pictures in the rock-carvings and so we can not trace the cat symbol in that way. Dogs and wolves in mimical presentation however are found on e.g. the Torsöbleck, showing wolf-warriors (antropomorph representation) and also on the Gallehus horn whose pictures, according to Höfler, represent Óðinn and his hunting follow. Concerning the Gallehus horn I have quite another opinion. I mean that it tells of the divine myths in general, and that the figures primarily are teriomorph and antropomorph cultic representations describing a living cult, and not the death-army of later times reconstruction of this cult. Höfler says himself that they in those days not were understood as a death-army in the same manner as nowadays.

In this connection Höfler has got en interesting thought concerning the prob- lem dog and cat:

Specially important in this connection is a conception that you can understand from a libellous poem by the Icelander Hjalti Skeggjason from the year 999 AD. There Óðinn is called a dog and Freja a bitch. Here you see the ancient dogshaped death-ruleress become visible, who, comparable with the Greek Hekabe-Hekate, barks in front of the ghastly death-march like also the male death-god Óðinn.(Höfler 1934, p.90)

Harlequin is a later Óðinn-representation. The wild hunt allways draws for- ward to the sound of bells (or other strike instruments or similar equipment like pots et c.). Confirmation exists from the 13th _{c. in mesnie Herlequin. Also the}

word Herlequin is of Germanic origin. (M.Rühlemann: Etymologie des Wortes Harlequin und verwandter Wörter, Halle 1912; B.O. Driesen: Der Ursprung des Harlequin in Forschungen zur neueren Literaturgeschichte, published by Fr.Muncker, Band XXV, Berlin 1904) More references in Höfler 1934, p.8, for example to Zimmersche Chronik about “Wuotesheer”. A French novel from the beginning of the 14th_{c. describes a Harlequin-follow—Roman de Fauvel—under}

the name of Charivari. The story takes place during the night of the heroes mar- riage—the Brautnacht—in front of his castle, and it is his friends who are the actors. The nightly herd is described as follows. “Der eine trug Kuhglocken unter

seinen Schenkeln und Hinterbacken angenäht und darüber umfängliche Schellen, hochtonig beim Klingen und Schwingen, der andere Trommeln und Zimbeln.” (Höfler 1934, p.7 ff.)

Ordericus Vitalis tells 1091 of black riders and other “Ethiopians” in the Herlechini familia. Black is the colour of death. The oldest pictured Harlequin- figure in theatre-milieu (1600) had a black face. This goes also for Roman de Fauvel, Haberfeldtrennen et.c. (Höfler 1934, p.39 ff.)

In the acts of Finska kyrkohistoriska samfundet VI 1637-1666 there is told, in connection with a visitation in Finström on Åland, of Óðinnsriders in 1639. They are riding around guesting people by force, cooking food in the homes of the unvoluntarily hosts and of the food belonging to the hosts. In this case also the mother of the accused Òðinnsrider was herself accused of handling all the cooking for the follow. Her son is said to have told the other he was a changeling, but was taken back by his mother through her cooking of a living ram, and then through smearing him with it’s fat.:

Effter ransakningen framkom Hindrich Isakson i Westanträsk och klagade på Jacob Pållson i Tiude att han hafuer kommit honom i ett ondt rychte och förhindrat ett ährligit echtenskaps tillbodh, n. att Jacob hafuer sagt Hindrich rider medh odens männer och hans moder kokar fhår till samma odens männer. Jacob refererar på Madz Jörensson i Oster Getha, som intet war tillstädes. Bleeff sagt att pastor skall tingföra och weta beskedh” (s. 13).

1640, 8-9 mars, Visitation i Finström (Ål.):16.

Om odens männer och kokningen, såsom then 18 puncten i förra vis- itation förmäler, består Måges Jörensson i Östergeta, Hindrich sielff hafua berättat för honom, at han war en bytingh, och bleff igen bytt genom thetta medell, att hans modher kokade en leffuandes gumse och smorde honom medh samma fetma

In this connection I want to recall the earlier section where Óðinn’s function as god of thieves is treated. Similarities also occur with several documented cases of werewolf-activities, as well as with examples from Southern Germany concern- ing the wild hunt in rural lore. Olaus Magnus writes for instance of werewolves in Balticum. Those being enrolled into this secret league were forced to act as wolfes every year during twelve days from Christmas—i.e. to the Holy Kings’ Day. Cattle were slain but not humans, and they broke into the farms and ate and drank of their supply. They had to sustain special tests of manhood like jumping over a wall, swim in a river during wintertime et c. A man with a scourge super-

vised that everything was correctly done or else they were whipped.(Höfler 1934, p.22) Cf. also the former mentioned werewolf-trial in Riga.

The occurence of the wild hunt under various names can in modern lore be connected with specially two time-points of the year. In e.g. Elsass and Schwaben and in the whole of Northern Germany, yes in fact in whole Germany and in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland (not to forget the Faroe islands, not men- tioned by Höfler) it is specially around Christmas till 12 days after Christmas and besides at the time of fasting.

With us in the Nordic countries we have got julfolk, jultåg, jolaskreid (Iceland), jolasveinar (Norway), not to forget those children in modern time in Anglo- Saxon countries singing carols and being paid with sweets. Óðinn also is called Jólnir. (Höfler 1934, p.22)

At the old Jul/Yule, now Lusse, we have lussegubbar (lussemen) still going around frightening people with demonic masks in Västergötland. Also these get sweeties in payment. Christianity has tried to import Santa Lucia at this time but that trial was not completely successfull as it seems. Our Swedish fasting is now mostly related with the whitches going around at Eastern collecting sweets, equipped with brooms and smearing-pots. In fireworks during Easter there remains a memory of dangerous demons traveling around in the night. They must be scared away. Earlier it was allways nessecary with living fire during such nights. A good idea of older times lore you can get from Hylthén-Cavallius Värend och Virdarna. On Iceland and the Faroe islands the Gryl still remains as connected with the fasting, but on Iceland also to Christmas as kind of father Christmas. The Gryl is a fertility-entity with evident demonic traits which seems to have a primarily shamanistic function in chasing demons from the fields and so preserving the crops, but he also runs around between the farms lifting the womens skirts with his hughe pole being red-painted in the tip.(Cf. the Gryl of the rune-stone Vg.56 later!)

A parallel of the lussegubbar of Västergötland, but now in fasting time, from Prüm. Boys walk around from house to house representing the army of the dead. The leader demands, in his capacity as a frozen dog, to get meat as a gift. If they receive what they demand they promise to walk away from the door. They sing:

“He komt en jrusen Hont/en ös net recht jezont/jet am a stök spek/da je het van dar düar aweg“.

Höfler understands in this habit remembrances of a very old sacrifice ceremony. I would rather say a typical fournishing of a cultic, shamanis- tic league and not a sacrificial rite, even if it in later lore may have been

connected with the real sacrifice. In any case it is indeed a very old cultic remnant.

Conclusion

To summarize this section we can settle that the shamanistic cultic leagues hunting demons were secret in the real sense of that word. It was not known, at least generally, who were engaged in their activities. They were initiated with a fixed ritual and had to suffer trials of different kind to be approved. Their main- tenance via food supply et c. was a duty of everybody in the community since all had benefit of the defense against the demons. Since the league however was secret, there was no way to issue official laws concerning payment of tributes. This is the real reason that these groups were allowed to, within certain limits, dispose over the property of other humans, unless they did not voluntarily donate food and other equipment. Even according to the laws of certain countries it is allowed for such leagues to steal. In later time when the humans did not live so close to these happenings, it was remembered as the wild hunt or similar, and as time went by it was transferred into carnival follows in connection with the fast- ing. Also the Harlequin-figure is a representative of the death army of Óðinn. In the countryside, however, the fertility-rites and the demon-hunt lingered up to modern times—often in shape of ecclesiastical processions over the fields lead by Cartholic priests and saint-figures. I have also demonstrated the possible variants of sacrifice to Óðinn—meaning hanging and piercing with a spear either this was real or symbolic in connection with an initiation. Not just warriors, werewolves et c. were initiated but of course also those runic masters going to handle the by Óðinn invented runes.