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A social system consists of events rather than physical elements and its structure is contained in its functioning (Katz & Kahn, 1966). An interest in the individuals within the implementing system as well as the system itself makes

the structures and processes of the social system, or in this case the community intervention, of particular importance. The system’s structures provide

individuals with the framework in which they interact with others within the system, by providing the setting and the opportunities for the interactions. While the processes are the interactions and interrelationships of those within the system and include the interactions with the external environment (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

8.2.1.1 Social System Structures

Kelly, Ryan, Altman, and Stelzner (2000) proposed an ecological view of social systems that could be used in the design of preventive interventions. They highlighted four concepts that define the system’s structures and four concepts that define the system’s processes. Social system structures are not static, they are dynamic and transactional (Katz & Kahn, 1966). A structure of a system describes the ‘what’ of the system and can be defined by four concepts: personal resource potentials; social system resources; social settings; and system

boundaries.

Personal resource potentials refer to the opportunities within the framework of the system for individuals to express personal qualities and/or attributes that impact upon others in the social system. Personal resource

potentials lead to the development of social ties between and among individuals in the social system. Social ties in turn create resource opportunities and increase the effectiveness of the system. A system with norms, values and roles that accept and promote these social ties and the expression of these qualities is considered to be high in personal resource potential (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The promotion of social competence of individuals in the social system is also a feature of social system resources, however it is groups, procedures or events which promote social competence rather than other members of the

system. Members of the system experience a feeling of integration and belonging when a social system is high in social system resources. Social relationships with other social systems are also greatly improved when a social system is high in social resources (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

Social settings are the specific informal and formal settings where the opportunities for the creation of personal resources and social system resources are provided. The provision of a space in which members can share experiences and develop social ties, increases the sense of community within the system (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The relationships between the many different social systems, that is, the formal and informal interaction and communication between them, are known as system boundaries. A system in which it is simple for individuals to establish reciprocal relationships with individuals outside of the system, is considered to have quite permeable boundaries, which creates opportunities for the creation of personal and social system resources (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

8.2.1.2 Social system processes

The system’s values and norms are expressed via the system’s processes. They also demonstrate the system’s response to entropy. The system’s processes describe the ‘how’ of the system and can be defined by the following four concepts: reciprocity; networking; boundary spanning; and adaptation.

Reciprocity refers to the way reciprocal relationships are defined and valued by members of the system. These give and take relationships have the potential to modify or expand member’s roles within the system. The

advancement of reciprocity as a system norm has the potential to increase social and personal system resources, which in turn increases the sense of community within the system. Reciprocal relationships may need to be encouraged by the system through the development of social settings that promote mutual exchange between its members (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The specific steps that system members take to become acquainted and connected with other members of the system and outside the system is referred to as networking. It is the establishment of communication and contact with others, which may in turn lead to a deeper and more committed reciprocal relationship. Networking allows new resources, or resources previously not recognized, to be identified (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The establishment of relationships with members of other systems, for the purpose of exchanging resources is known as boundary spanning. Boundary

spanning differs from networking in that the exchanges are sanctioned and supported by the social norms of both systems and is acknowledged as benefiting both systems (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

Participants’ responses to demands from the system and from the environment are considered to be adaptation. They may vary between social systems and individuals and may take the form of reciprocity, networking and/or boundary spanning. In this process the participant actively influences the

system’s structure and processes and maintains their own distinctive qualities while developing new qualities (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

8.2.1.3 The Relationship between Structures and Processes

As with all elements of a system, the structures and processes explained above are interconnected. The relationships and interdependencies of many of the structures and processes are apparent in the above descriptions. The social settings, and system boundaries, which are structures of the system, provide the opportunities for the creation of the other two structures, personal resources and social system resources. Similarly the system’s process of reciprocity has the potential to increase the personal and social system resources. The permeability of the system’s boundaries has an obvious impact on the networking and boundary spanning processes. Finally the processes of reciprocity, networking and boundary spanning may all be a response to demands from the system and therefore part of the adaptation process (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

A balance between structures and processes is needed if a system is going to survive and be effective. For example, excessive structure may be

constraining, resulting in a reduction in the opportunities for personal resources to contribute to the system. However, a system with insufficient structures may not be able to facilitate the system’s processes (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

8.2.2 The Role of Structures and Processes in Understanding the Implementation of Community Interventions

The eight structures and processes articulated above are important to consider in the design of a community intervention as they have the potential to

Stelzner (2000) present a number of operational concepts that enhance

understanding of the ecology of social systems. These are values, norms, roles, negative entropy, entry, socialization, and development.

8.2.2.1 Values, Norms and Roles

Values, norms, and roles are interrelated (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Behavior within a system is justified by the system’s values which are based on the principles and philosophy of the system. The system’s norms are the translation of these values into expectations of individuals’ behavior within the system, and the particular behaviors related to specific positions in the system are the roles. They impact upon the system and the people within it and have the potential to change the system’s structures and processes. It has been recommended that an examination of the values, norms and roles of a system will increase

understanding of the system’s structures and processes (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

A system’s values can affect the selection of staff; establish patterns of social interaction; and shape goals and practices. The communication of personal resources and social system resources and the potential for social settings to become system resources, is influenced by the expression of the system’s values (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The system’s norms help provide individuals with a framework for

behaviors that would be considered appropriate and acceptable. Social regulation within the system is created by the system’s norms. The processes of reciprocity, networking, and boundary spanning may or may not be considered norms of the system (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The functional interdependence of the system’s roles binds individuals together resulting in a degree of integration within the system (Katz & Kahn, 1966). They are not always explicit. For the most part employees roles will be clearly expressed, but volunteers might find that they are not always sure of their roles within the system. They will seek information regarding their roles from others in the system. The information that the volunteer receives and the method by which it is conveyed can impact upon the contribution that they might make

to the system as a personal resource or boundary spanner (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

8.2.2.2 Negative Entropy

As explained earlier, negative entropy is the system’s attempts to hinder the entropic process. Additional energy is imported from the environment to address the lack of available energy which results from entropy. Maintaining negative entropy is vital to the system’s survival. The entropic process is

characterized by decreased interactions between the system’s components. Kelly, Ryan, Altman and Stelzner (2000) note that the interdependence of system structures and processes is essential to the system’s maintenance of negative entropy.

To maintain negative entropy a system needs to import more energy than it needs from its environment. A system’s structures and processes can support the maintenance of negative entropy. For a community intervention, structures and processes that encourage the importation of energy in the form of community participation would maintain negative entropy.

8.2.2.3 Entry, Socialization, and Development

The processes of entry, socialization, and development are essential to the system’s on-going functioning. The entry process refers to the manner by which new comers enter the system. Entry is facilitated by formal and informal

structures such as introductions, interviews, and invitations. Individuals may enter a system that is not welcoming, but are unlikely to perform at their best in this setting. A lot can be learned about the system’s norms and boundary permeability by examining which individuals are excluded from the system (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).

The process by which individuals that are new to the system, acquire the appropriate skills, knowledge, and dispositions that will allow them to be a contributing member of the system is called socialization. Structures and processes within the system that facilitate individuals’ understanding of how their own personal resources will contribute to the social system resources and social settings of the system, will increase their socialization (Kelly, Ryan,

The increase in a system’s differentiation and hierarchic integration is referred to as development. As systems become larger and more complex there is a tendency for individuals within them to become isolated and find it difficult to access social system resources. However, it is possible for a system to become more complex and larger and still maintain a supportive environment for the system members. It is important for systems to develop individuals’ personal resources, and social system resources alongside the development of the system. In this way individuals’ sense of belonging and sense of community is

maximized and the risk of individuals experiencing ‘burnout’ is minimized (Kelly, Ryan, Altman, & Stelzner, 2000).