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As discussed in chapter 2, an ecological approach to prevention

interventions has been widely recommended. Goodman (2000) offers a model of community intervention implementation, based on the principles of social ecology. In this model the components of the program are implemented across the individual, interpersonal, organization, community, and macro-policy ecological levels. The initial, mediating, modifying and outcome conditions are articulated for each level. While this model is useful in the design of community interventions and implementation strategies, it does not take into account the people implementing the intervention. However, ecological theory, combined with a systems perspective, can be helpful in understanding those who implement community interventions, as well as those who are recipients of the intervention.

Ecological theory can be considered a derivative of systems theory (Bogenschneider, 1996). Just as systems theory views individuals as embedded within larger systems and acknowledges the importance of context so too does ecological theory (Visser & Schoeman, 2004). While the systems perspective offers an understanding of how change occurs and is facilitated, an ecological approach allows an understanding of the individual members of the system within the context of the many levels and systems of their environment (Visser & Schoeman, 2004).

8.1.1 The Multiple Ecological Levels of a Community Intervention The importance of an ecological approach to the design and

implementation of a community intervention is well established (Goodman, Wandersman, Chinman, Imm, & Morrissey, 1996). While, it has mainly been used to understand the community and to design strategies that will intervene at all ecological levels, it can also be used to understand the intervention itself and the people within it. Indeed, Choi (2003) has called for research into

Community interventions have multiple levels (Price, 2003). Just as the recipients of community interventions are nested within the ecological levels of society, community, and family, so too are those who implement the

interventions. An ecological view of community interventions and the people who implement them, would take into account the human element of

interventions and assist in understanding the interactions involved in implementation.

Price (2003) points out that it is important to understand that prevention programs are multilevel systems, and that program implementation occurs within a multilevel context. The implementation of community interventions is a multi- level process. They are implemented by individuals embedded in systems, such as organizations and institutions, within the community. They seek enhanced wellbeing for individuals and groups as well as broad community change (Choi, 2003).

Kallestad and Olweus (2003) used a multilevel approach to examine the implementation of a bullying program in a school setting. This research revealed a number of teacher-level and school-level factors related to implementation. Results of this study revealed that teachers’ perceptions of themselves, the program and the need for the program impacted on the intervention’s outcomes. The climate of the school in terms of its openness to communication and attitude towards change were also predictive of intervention outcomes.

Visser and Schoeman (2004) identified obstacles to the implementation of a community intervention, seeking to reduce the risk of HIV infection. This intervention was implemented within a school and implementation barriers were noted at each level of the system. At the individual/teacher level, barriers

included lack of motivation; lack of understanding of the severity of the problem; and poor relationships with program recipients (students). These problems led to teachers not wanting to be involved in the program. This was further complicated by the barriers at the organizational/school level, which included lack of

resources, in the form of classroom time and availability of teachers; lack of support for the teachers; and lack of promotion of program implementation. Finally at the policy level the main barrier to the program implementation was its low priority within the Department of Education. The Department implemented

other programs and changes within the schools in the same time period, leaving the schools with less time, resources, energy and motivation to implement the HIV prevention program.

8.1.2 Understanding Community Change

Community interventions seek to change the community in which they are implemented. Attempts to change behaviors must consider the social and cultural context in which the behavior occurs (Goodman, 2000). However, it is not enough for an external consultant to take these factors into consideration while attempting to promote change. As has been articulated in previous chapters, a system, such as a community, is autonomous and its reaction to external stimulation is dependent upon its internal processes. Therefore the impetus for change must come from within the system (Visser & Schoeman, 2004).

Dynamic homeostasis, a characteristic common to all systems, is the system’s attempt to maintain stability and preserve its character. A system is compelled to resist change even if change is necessary, because of dynamic homeostasis (Hanna, 1997). A community, as a system, must recognize a gap between the current situation and the desired position for it to mobilize and work towards change. If a community intervention is to facilitate change within the community, it must be accepted by the community as a part of the system (Visser & Schoeman, 2004).

For a community intervention to become a part of the community there needs to be an understanding of the social factors within the community such as community norms, and the structure of community services (Goodman, 2000). Once a community intervention is embedded in the community system it can assist community members to reach the desired state and work towards change (Visser & Schoeman, 2004).

It is through a combination of ecological and systems theories that community change can be understood. Ecological theory offers the use of ecological levels to understand the social and cultural context in which a particular behavior occurs. Systems theory complements and adds to this by including an understanding of the community as a system, its internal