CTRÓNICA DE CÁLCULO

This study aligns itself to the interpretive or constructive research paradigm, which is qualitative in nature and perceives the social world as constructed, interpreted and experienced by people interacting with one another in a broad social system (Maxwell, 2006; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Characteristics of this research paradigm, such as beinginductive (undertaken towards discovery and process), having high validity and being firmly centred on

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gaining a deeper understanding of a research problem in its unique context, makes it a highly appropriate choice for the study (Tuli, 2010; Farzanfar, 2005; Ulin et al., 2004; Creswell, 2003). This is because the study aims at gaining a broader understanding of the governance and problems affecting the development of green spaces in the context of Africa in order for tailed sustainable measures to be provided to address the situation.

The underlying assumption of the interpretative paradigm, which focuses on reality as a human construct and being naturalistic in terms of interpreting real-world situations exactly the way they appear, further supports its usage in the study (Mutch, 2005; Ulin et al., 2004; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Neuman, 2003; Casey, 1993). This gives the study an opportunity to present the true condition of urban green spaces in the study area in their natural state without any manipulation, and to integrate varied human thoughts and experiences in in-depth discussions to get a better understanding of the topic under study. These strengths of the interpretative paradigm influenced its selection over the positivist research paradigm (quantitative research), which approaches social problems narrowly due to its belief that empirical facts or reality exist independent of human thoughts, social reality is controlled by laws of cause and effect (deductive logic) and quantification of variables is an objective way to understand social reality (Tuli, 2010; Marczyk et al., 2005; Sarantakos, 2005; Neuman, 2003; Cohen et al., 2000; Crotty, 1998).

Notwithstanding the many benefits the interpretative research paradigm provides for understanding social problems, some drawbacks have been associated with it. It is perceived by some as being subjective, since the researcher can be biased in interpreting real-life situations. It also tends to consume a great deal of time (Creswell, 2003). Much attention was therefore given to these drawbacks to make the current study as rich and varied as possible.

144 5.4 Case study strategy and the study area

In line with the constructive/interpretive research paradigm guiding the study, the case study design or strategy was used (Lewis-Beck et al., 2004; Yin, 2003). The nature of the objectives and the research questions of the study, which require different sources of data and a chain of evidence to establish the true condition and governing arrangements surrounding the management of green spaces in the study area, made the case study design a good choice. The case study design is well noted for serving as a robust means through which detailed and rich data from a variety of sources can be collected and analysed to give an in-depth account of a phenomenon or social problem (Zucker, 2009; Stake, 1995).

The case study design is one of the four broad research designs which are used in the Social Sciences (experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal and case study) and is oriented towards providing a detailed understanding of a phenomenon which is within the broader trajectory of the interpretive research philosophy (Matthews & Ross, 2010; Given, 2008; Lewis-Beck et al., 2004). According to Yin (2003:13), case study “is an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”. Zaidah (2007) describes case study as a form of study that explores and examines contemporary real-life phenomena by analysing a number of events and their relationships. In a broader perspective, Woodside (2010) defines case study as an inquiry that focuses on describing, understanding, predicting and controlling a phenomenon so as to have as much knowledge as possible about it relying on different sources of data. Features of case study put forward by Mills et al. (2010) include the following:

 It focuses on the interrelationship that constitute the context of a specific entity (such as organisation, event, activity or individuals);

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 It analyses the relationship between the contextual factors and the entity being studied; and

 It has explicit purpose of using insights from different sources of data to explain a given problem or contribute to an existing theory.

Relying on the case study design, a combination of explanatory and descriptive forms of case study was incorporated in the study(Hancock & Algozzine, 2006, Yin, 2003). The explanatory case study establishes the cause-and-effect relationships of a phenomenon with the ultimate goal of determining how events occur and which ones may influence particular outcomes; whilst descriptive case study provides an absolute description of a phenomenon within its real context (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006). These forms of case study were employed to enable the study to comprehensively describe the exact condition of urban green spaces in Kumasi in their natural context, give possible explanations for such conditions and suggest measures to sustain the green spaces accordingly.

Despite the many benefits that a case study approach offers in research, such as getting first-hand information and a detailed understanding of a phenomenon, and explaining the complexities of real life situations, some criticisms have been leveled against it. Among them are bias on the part of researchers using this method because of their close involvement in a study, taking longer time to finish, and the difficulty in using only a single case from which to generalize for broad issues (Zaidah, 2007; Yin, 1984). Much attention was therefore giving to these shortcomings to avoid their effects on the study.

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5.4.1 Study area

The study was centred on Kumasi Metropolis, the second city of Ghana after Accra. The rationale for this was that Kumasi was once the Garden City of West Africa (Geurts, 2009; Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly [KMA], 2006) and used to have many green spaces in the past but now most of these green spaces are no more or are deteriorating at a faster rate due to some challenges. It is one particular city that represent almost all the common challenges facing many African cities such as rapid urbanisation, problems with town planning, urban sprawl and loss of urban biodiversity including green spaces (Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012; Geurts, 2009). This made Kumasi an appropriate choice for the study since the study aims at developing measures to sustain urban green spaces which are diminishing rapidly in many cities in African. The description of Kumasi is presented below:

(a) Location and size

Kumasi is the capital of Ashanti Region of Ghana and was founded in 1680 by the then Ashanti King, Osei Tutu I as the capital of the Ashanti Kingdom (Geurts, 2009). It is located between latitude 6.350– 6.400 and longitude 1.300 – 1.350 and has a total land area of 254km2. It is about 270km north of Accra, the national capital of Ghana (see Figure 5.1). It is within the transitional forest zone of Ghana and has a concentric physical structure. Its location in Ghana is advantageous since it serves as a central point traversed by major road networks to other parts of Ghana and beyond. The central nature of Kumasi encourages large- scale migration in to the city. The 2010 Population and Housing Census of Ghana put the total population of Kumasi at 2,035, 064 making it the most populated city in Ghana (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). The estimated annual population growth rate of the city is around 5.4 per cent (Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012).

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Figure 5.1: Map of Ghana showing the location of Kumasi

Source: Department of Geography and Regional Planning, University of Cape Coast (2013).

(b)Condition of the natural environment

Kumasi Metropolis falls within the moist semi-deciduous vegetation zone of Ghana which has favourable soil conditions that support farming and green vegetation. The rich vegetation cover of the city led to the development of the Kumasi Zoological Gardens.

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However, rapid urbanisation and urban sprawl have depleted substantial aspect of the green vegetation of Kumasi. Patches of green vegetation along waterways have been cleared whilst most of the green spaces in other parts of the city have been encroached upon. Some rivers and streams in the city have dwindled or are near extinction due to uncontrolled human activities along the water bodies. The encroachment of the water bodies, and green spaces such as wetlands, and nature reserves by the high volume of houses often causes flooding in some parts of the city to destroy many properties (KMA, 2006).

(c)Condition of the built environment

The 1945 Town and Country Planning Act of Ghana served as a basis for organised development in Kumasi. Based on this plan, Kumasi was developed as a garden city with much natural environment interspersed with physical developments. The 1945 plan in addition to other plans provided a framework to guide the social, economic, physical, environmental growth of the city. In recent years, Kumasi Metropolis has been struck with both human and vehicular traffic congestion, especially in the Central Business District (CBD) due to high volume of trading activities that takes place in the city. The city is categorised into high-income, government, indigenous and tenement housing areas. Most of the houses in the area are ‘compound houses’ (Figure 5.2). This form of housing accommodates large family members or individuals and has an internal courtyard (Owusu- Ansah & O’Connor, 2010). The erection of wooden structures such as kiosks and metal containers along some principal streets and in several aspects of Kumasi are common phenomena which have wrecked the beauty of the city (KMA, 2006).

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Some parts of the CDB of Kumasi Example of Compound houses

Figure 5.2: Commercial activities and nature of houses in Kumasi

Source: Owusu-Ansah & O’Connor (2010), and Moro (2009)

5.4.2 Case selection

To have better understanding of the condition and governance of urban green spaces in Kumasi, the multiple case study approach, which gives emphasis to two or more observations of the same phenomenon in an area was adopted, with several neighbourhoods selected as cases for the study (Rowley, 2002; Hancock & Algozzine, 2006). This approach was employed to make the study robust and more reliable by getting a chain of evidence from different cases to make informed conclusions (Zaidah, 2007; Yin, 2003; Yin, 1994).

Five (5) neighbourhoods (Amakom, Ahodwo, Nhyiaso, Patasi and Denyami) were selected to serve as multiple cases for the study. In addition to this, the green spaces in the central business district were used as another case. The rationale was that these areas had different forms of urban green spaces and that most of the green spaces in these

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neighbourhoods were in a deplorable state due to human activities, and hence needed to be saved from extinction. The selection of these neighbourhoods was done in consultation with the Department of Parks and Gardens in Kumasi in an effort to help address the rapid deterioration of the green spaces in those areas and in Kumasi in general. Figure 5.3 shows the location of the selected neighbourhoods for the study.

Figure 5.3: Map of Kumasi showing selected neighbourhoods for the study Source: Department of Geography and Regional Planning, University of Cape Coast (2013)

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5.4.3 Target/study population

Four categories of people constituted the target population for the study. These were the residents of Kumasi, city authorities, opinion leaders and officials of some miscellaneous bodies associated with town planning and green space management. The city authorities were involved in the study on the basis that they constitute the local government of Kumasi Metropolitan area and are entrusted with legal powers to ensure the overall development of the city, be it economic, social or environmental. Green spaces as part of the natural environment, were therefore under their control, making their participation in the study essential. The residents of Kumasi are the actual stakeholders who used the green spaces for different purposes. The success or failure of the green spaces to a greater extent depends on them, and this made their inclusion essential.

Various opinion leaders such as chiefs, assembly men and unit committee members were included due to the political structure of the study area. Based on the local government system and traditional set up of Ghana, these opinion leaders are very important in community development. The chiefs, for example, are the custodians of the lands in their area, and in view of that play an active role in all land matters under their jurisdiction, including green space management. These made it appropriate for them to participate in the study. The assembly men and unit committee members are key individuals in the local government structure of Ghana at the grassroots level. They are representatives of their communities and channel all the developmental problems of their communities to the district assembly. These roles warranted their participation in the study.

The miscellaneous bodies included in the study comprised research institutions, estate developers, the media, environmental NGOs and private organisations associated with green space management. These bodies contribute to the development of urban green spaces by way

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of their activities, ranging from research, reports and infrastructural development to preservation of the natural environment directly or indirectly affecting green spaces. This also placed the officials in these bodies in agood position to be involved in the study.

5.4.4 Sampling technique and sample size

Theoretical or purposive sampling was used to select the respondents for the study. This kind of sampling is done to select respondents based on the theoretical background of a study or to select respondents who can serve the needs of a particular study (Mill et al., 2010). The usage of the purposive sampling technique in the study was not arbitrary, but based on its strength in helping select key individuals from whom detailed information could be obtained to have a better understanding of specific events and activities. This benefit therefore supported the primary motive of the case study design employed in the study (Mills et al., 2010;Yin, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Powell, 1997). For instance, in the words of Mills et al. (2010: 837), purposive sampling covers the following:

Sampling in case study research is largely purposeful, that is, it includes the selection of information-rich cases for in-depth study. Information-rich cases are those from which the researcher can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose and investigated phenomena of the study. The case study approach offers flexibility in terms of the justification of sampling choice, the number of investigated cases, and sampling techniques.

In applying the purposive sampling technique in the study, the selection of the participants for the study relied on the preference or judgment of the researcher taking into consideration the theoretical milieu and the needs of the study. In view of that, the city authorities of Kumasi whose activities were concentrated on town planning and the development of urban green

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spaces were selected. Specifically, ten institutions that form part of the Kumasi city authorities were selected. These institutions were as follows: Town and Country Planning Department; Department of Parks and Gardens; Environmental Protection Agency; Forest Service Division; Wildlife Division; Lands Commission; Development Control Unit (Works Department); Development Planning Unit; Department of Urban Roads and Resource Management Support Centre. One official was selected from each of these institutions, adding up to 10 respondents. In addition to this, miscellaneous bodies or institutions whose activities are instrumental to the development of green spaces and town planning were also purposively involved in the study. These institutions comprised research institutions (Department of Horticulture, and Department of Planning at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology [KNUST]), an NGO (Friends of Rivers and Water Bodies), the media (one representative each from Fox FM, and Angel FM), an estate agency (Angel Estates and Construction Agency) and private horticultural developers (three private horticultural contractors). In all, nine (9) representatives from selected miscellaneous bodies were included in the study.

Furthermore, from the five study neighbourhoods, chiefs (traditional leaders), assembly men, unit committee members and key personalities were purposely included in the study as opinion leaders. A total of 21 opinion leaders were selected. Members of the general public also had their fair share of participating in the study. Specific categories of the residents of the five study neighbourhoods were purposively selected because of their close acquaintance with green space developments in their respective neighbourhoods. Among these residents, emphasis was given to the youth (17 – 44 years) and the elderly (45 years and above). The justification was that the youth are noted in the literature on urban green spaces for being key users of urban green spaces whilst the elderly were included on the grounds that

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they have great insight and a good overview of the developments that have taken place on green spaces over a long period of time. In selecting the residents from the five selected neighbourhoods, preference was given to those who had lived in their neighbourhoods for a period of five years and more. This time frame was used as a means to get individuals who had lived in their neighbourhoods for some time and hence had much information about green space developments. Table 5.1 gives an overview of the sample size or total number of respondents that were involved in the study.

Table 5.1: Overview of the total sample involved in the study City Authorities Residents of

Kumasi

Opinion leaders Miscellaneous bodies

Town and Country Planning Department Department of Parks and Gardens Environmental Protection Agency Forest Service Division Wildlife Division Lands Commission Development Control Unit Development Planning Unit Department of Urban Roads Resource Management Support Centre Amakom (10youth, 10 elderly) Denyami (9 youth, 7 elderly) Patasi (9 youth, 8 elderly) Ahodwo (10 youth, 8 elderly) Nhyiaso (9 youth, 9 elderly) Three (3) chiefs (Patasi, Amakom, Ahodwo)

Assembly man for Ahodwo, Nhyiaso and Danyame electoral area

Assembly man for Patasi electoral area Assembly man for Amakom electoral area

2 Unit Committee members each from the selected

Neighbourhoods 1 key personality each from the selected Neighbourhoods Department of Planning (KNUST) Department of Horticulture (KNUST) NGO (Friends of Rivers and Water Bodies) Estate Agency (Angel Estates and Construction Agency) Media (representative from Fox FM and Angel FM) 3 private horticultural contractors Source: Fieldwork (2013)

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5.4.5 Data sources and research instruments

One characteristic feature of case studies is the use of a variety of evidence or data to gain an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon, hence supporting the triangulation of research instruments (Yin, 2003). To achieve the objectives of the study and also provide sufficient answers to the study’s research questions, four sources of data were relied upon. These were interviews, observations, archival records and documentary data as shown in Table 5.2. The main forms of documentary data used for the study were town planning regulations of Ghana, other secondary data, such as works, books, articles, reports, and conference papers on urban green spaces and sustainable urban development across the world. Archival data in the form of the 2010-2013 development plan of Kumasi, satellite images on land cover change in the study area and the layouts of the five shortlisted neighbourhoods were used. The layouts were obtained from the Town and Country Planning Department at Kumasi.

In getting the interview and observation data, research instruments (study protocols) were designed. The interviews were captured in two ways: in-depth interviews (IDIs) for the opinion leaders and officials of various departments/organisations on green spaces, and focus