En cuanto a la actividad probatoria desplegada en juicio oral se tiene como prueba de

The Soil Association (SA) was established in 1946 as the first major organisation for organic farming. At first the main aim of the SA was to do research on the role of a healthy, fertile soil in the production of healthy crops and livestock and the link with human health and nutrition (the Haughly Experiment). In 1967, the SA developed the first set of

production standards and in 1973 the certification procedure was formally established. Now, this is run by a separate certification department (Soil Association Certification Ltd. (SACert), formerly known as the Soil Association Organic Marketing Company (SAOMCo), which licenses approximately 58 per cent of all operators in the UK (farmers, growers, processors and importers). The Soil Association charity has broad representation from consumers to producers and is generally seen as an important actor in the development of the sector and in bringing organic farming to a wider audience (s: most interviewees).

Five other certification bodies operate in the UK. They are: OF&G (Organic Farmers and Growers Ltd., established in 1973, 19.4 per cent of all operators), the BDAA (Bio-dynamic Agricultural Association,

established in 1944, approx. 2.2 per cent of all operators), the OFF

(Organic Food Federation established in 1986, 7.2 per cent of all operators), the SOPA (Scottish Organic Producers Organisation, established in 1988, 12.8 per cent of all operators) and, finally, the IOFGA (Irish Organic Farmers and Growers Association, 0.3 per cent of all operators). All five are mainly active in certification – but much less so in general lobbying activities. Their members are, frequently, also members of the Soil Association Charity so they can benefit from its services to producer members. OF&G was founded as a marketing company for organic producers and now sees itself as a more farmer-friendly organisation, whereas OFF specialises mainly in intensive livestock production and the certification of processors and importers. SOPA and IOFGA are active only in Scotland and Northern Ireland respectively. HDRA (the Henry

Doubleday Research Association) was formed in 1954 with the aim of

14 _{The respondents include the head of the Organic Farming Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries}

and Food (MAFF); representatives of organic farming advisory services in England and Scotland; representatives of two organic sector bodies; an organic farmer-member of the National Farmers’ Union (NFU); a representative of organic farming research; a representative of an organic marketing co-operative and of an organic processing company and, finally, two representatives from two separate supermarket chains marketing organic products. All interviews were done in June and July 1999.

promoting organic practices to hobby gardeners and is increasingly involved in research on organic vegetable and fruit production, as well as overseas activities.

At the beginning of the 1980s, several other important organisations were set up. Elm Farm Research Centre (EFRC) is a privately initiated research institute for organic farming and has, since 1986, supported the largest advisory service for organic farmers in the UK, the OAS (Organic Advisory Service). The producer members of the SA founded OGA (Organic

Growers Association) in 1980 and BOF (British Organic Farmers) in 1982 as their professional organisations with the main aim of improving the technical information available to producers through the publication of a magazine and a bi-annual technical conference. In 1998 BOF/OGA remerged with the Soil Association, and their roles are now taken care of by the SA producer services department.

In 1983, the British Organic Standards Committee (BOSC) was set up to create an agreed, unified standard for organic production, but in 1987 the task was taken over by the UKROFS (United Kingdom Register of Organic Food Standards) established at the request of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (MAFF) to set a common minimum standard for the UK. On implementation of EC Reg. 2092/91 in the UK, UKROFS was designated as the Competent Authority for administering the EC

Regulation, but continued to operate its own inspection and certification system.

There are some differences between the organisations in terms of the certification charges and in terms of the production standards, both for farming and processing. As indicated above, the organisations differ in their main area of activity but there is also a certain degree of overlap. Although this may create some confusion for farmers interested in conversion, competition between the certification bodies also helps to ensure the effective functioning of the process and gives farmers a choice between different certification bodies (s: organic farming advisor, England).

There is some co-operation between the organisations. In the past there was administrative co-operation between OF&G and SAOMCo which was contracted to carry out OF&G’s certification administration, but both organisations outgrew the arrangement. Currently the SA and SOPA have an agreement for closer co-operation and are discussing the details of a possible merger .

In the area of lobbying, the organisations appear to co-operate relatively well, or follow the lead of the Soil Association. Regarding organic production standards, however, conflicts exist. The conflicts appear to have had some negative impact on the overall development of the organic farming sector as retailers in particular find that many different standards are likely to confuse the consumer. Another negative impact of the presence of more and conflicting standards may be that the impartiality of certification bodies may be questioned , if they have an income from

United Kingdom

licence fees for the use of a trademark symbol. It may appear tempting for the certification body to accept violations of standards in order to avoid reductions in incomes. This point was underlined in Elm Farm’s written evidence to the House of Lords Select Committee (HOL 1999).

All organisations have difficulties in recruiting competent staff for servicing the rapidly growing sector.

“There are not the people out there with the knowledge to provide good inspectors, good advisors. Lack of experience, that is clearly an obstacle, people are kept waiting, because there are not the number of advisors and inspectors“ (s: organic farming advisor, England).

7.2.2

7.2.2

7.2.2

7.2.2

Attitudes towards organic Attitudes towards organic Attitudes towards organic Attitudes towards organic farming in the general farmingfarming in the general farmingfarming in the general farmingfarming in the general farming