UNT CORTE SUPERIOR DE JUSTICIA DE AMAZONAS
MEDIOS PROBATORIOS DE LOS ACUSADOS
6.3
6.3
6.3
SicilSicilSicilSicilyyyy
Sicily is one of the Italian regions where organic farming has the largest emphasis on crops other than grassland. In 1997, Sicily accounted for 19 per cent of total Italian organic UAA, while its share of organic land on total farmed land was 8 per cent (Zanoli 1997b). Sicily has been one of the pioneering regions for organic farming based on exports of biodynamic citrus fruits to the Northern European countries (mainly Germany). The recent development seems, however, to be better explained by
deteriorating conditions for agriculture in general in this region. This is illustrated by the fact that a drop in general wheat prices in 1995 did not influence the high premiums paid to Sicilian organic wheat producers and that an increase in conversion followed in 1996.
Relative economic conditions for organic farming seem an important trigger for the recent growth in Sicily, but institutional factors may help in giving an account of the historical emergence and constitution of a large organic sector in Sicily. Within the farming community, two areas have been of particular interest in regard to the study of the institutional environment: the hegemonic role of farmers’ unions in promoting organic farming and the specific dynamic interplay of organic certification bodies.
6.3.1
6.3.1
6.3.1
6.3.1
InsInsInsInstitutional changes within the fartitutional changes within the fartitutional changes within the fartitutional changes within the farming communityming communityming communityming community
In Sicily, organic farming has developed from the inside of the traditional farming community. Sicily is fundamentally still an agricultural region producing high quality products. Converting to organic farming is comparatively easy due to existing production being close to organic methods.
“The European agri-environmental regulation [EC Reg. 2078/92] just gave a propulsion to organic production” (s: agriculture administrator)
and in Sicily the organic support scheme has been used as a new option of public support for farming during a period otherwise characterised by declining support for agriculture.
General farmers’ unions had an important role in the development of organic farming. These organisations did not embrace the philosophical approach behind organic farming, but they recognised its economic importance. Although general farmers’ unions were more interested in aid to farmers than in the development of a new approach to farming, they did not oppose but actually backed up the implementation of EC Reg. 2078/92 in 1994. Hence, in order to keep up the – traditionally high – level of protection of farmers’ incomes in Sicily, farmers’ unions have acted to boost the development of organic farming and general farmers’ unions have, ever since, had a decisive role in the promotion of organic farming in Sicily. An important link between political support and the individual farmers is the agriculture advisors whether acting by themselves or employed by organisations (s: general farmers’ representative). Organic certification bodies are not directly involved in promoting conversion to organic production. However, market conditions may explain a high demand of certification services in the region as many products (such as citrus, olive oil and fruit and vegetables in general) exhibited a rapid increase in exports, due to continental (Italian and non- Italian) demand. Some conflicts originated in the island among different certification bodies due to different practices and to different service costs and royalties. A particularly harsh conflict in the early/mid 1990s was generated between Demeter Italy and Associazione Suolo e Salute, concerning the certification and inspection results of a large quantity of table grapes. The outcome of the conflict was the expulsion of Suolo e Salute from the FIAO (the umbrella lobbying body of organic farming – mainly representing certifying bodies), and the switch by the pioneer co- operative Salamita from using Demeter Italy to using Suolo e Salute for certification purposes.
The certification of organic production has opened the way up to other potential conflicts – such as competition in the market for organic certification – and alliances and, consequently, a total restructuring of the institutional set up. The Coordinamento Siciliano per l’agricoltura biologica – a founder of AIAB – decided, in 1995, to move out to set up Codex, a new certification body, together with Associazione per l’Agricoltura biodinamica – the Italian association for biodynamic agriculture. Ecocert, the Italian branch of the Belgian-based certification body, was also set up in Sicily by other technicians and advisors who originally were members of AIAB (s: organic organisation representative). Hence internal conflicts have developed and implied structural change, but no reconciliation forum has been established.
Some Sicilian certification bodies have developed contacts with general farmers’ unions through alliances and informal agreements after the implementation of EC Reg. 2078/92 in 1994 in Sicily, but no official rapprochements have been made. According to an organic organisation representative, informal links exist in Sicily between Suolo e Salute – since the early 1990s the largest certification body in Italy – and Confagricoltura that groups together mainstream farmers with large holdings. In addition, the oldest producer association AIAB, founded in 1988, has agreements with the national farmers’ union CIA. However, according to the represen- tatives of Sicilian general farmers’ unions they had, and still have, more important problems to solve than those of organic farming as they have major difficulties in surviving. The main issue for the Coldiretti union is now moving towards a co-ordination of organic supply in order to “group producers in order to find a certification body which offers the best warranties and, of course, cheaper prices”(s: general farmers’ union representative).
At the same time the certification bodies are also often in competition with the farmers’ unions for providing certain services.
6.3.2
6.3.2
6.3.2
6.3.2
Other institutional changesOther institutional changesOther institutional changesOther institutional changes
Due to the role of officials in the regional office for agriculture, which are in general in favour of organic farming (s: general farmer’ representative), Sicilian organic farming aid was implemented in 1994 while other low- input measures of EC Reg. 2078/92 were implemented in 1995/96. The relative political position of organic farming improved further in 1999 when the European Commission suspended Sicily’s regional agri- environmental programme because the environmental impact had not been sufficiently proved while organic production was the only measure which was not affected by the blockage of subsidies (s: general farmers’ representatives and agriculture administrator). In all, the political position has given organic farming a “competitive advantage” vis-à-vis other sustainable farming systems.
A significant feature of the organic farming sector in Sicily is the role of the export market and of the “foreign” (i.e. non-Sicilian) demand for organic products. The rise of the Sicilian organic export market can be dated back to 1974, when the Salamita co-operative started exports of particular Mediterranean produce such as citrus produce, grapes, and other fruit and vegetables. In the words of an agriculture administrator:
“… the export market was already there, before the great organic boom of the recent years … today many farmers say: If organic farming did not exist, I would not have worked this year”. Not only farmers, but also exporters and traders, explored a completely new and apparently endless organic market and “organic products are literally stolen from the hands of the organic farmers”(s: agriculture administrator).
The Regional Office of Agriculture has recognised the export potential of organic farming. In 1997, it organised a specific promotion campaign for organic products, which even won a national award. The motto for the promotion of the organic sector in Sicily was
“Come Bio comanda” [as Bio commands, a word-game with the idiomatic phrase “Come Dio comanda” – as God commands](s: agriculture administrator). However, a major reason for the booming exports in organic produce is the crisis in exports for most of the Sicilian non-organic production, due to lack of structural investments especially in the citrus and fruit sector (new varieties, new growing methods, etc.). The organic sales happened to be the sole hope for many producers facing bankruptcy, and it has worked so far (s: agriculture administrator).
6.3.3
6.3.3
6.3.3
6.3.3
Summary of insSummary of insSummary of insSummary of institutional changes in Sicilytitutional changes in Sicilytitutional changes in Sicilytitutional changes in Sicily
Within the farming community, organic farming is promoted not by organic farmers’ unions but by competing certification bodies. General farmers’ unions have, since the implementation of EC Reg. 2078/92 in 1994, been actively in favour of conversion to organic production as a means to protect farmers’ incomes. Within the agriculture policy domain, the support of officials in the regional office for agriculture to organic farming seems to have been decisive in the strong development of the organic sector since 1994 when EU agri-environmental support was implemented. The positive political position was further emphasised in 1999 when the EU decided to block all parts of the regional agro-
environmental programme other than the measures in support of organic farming. In the food market, the traditional high reliance on export markets along with a promotion campaign launched in 1997 for organic production, have – in combination with the crises of general agriculture production since the mid 1980s – contributed to a significant overall development of organic farming in Sicily. Finally, an overall institutional setting is missing as there is neither any co-ordination between the domains of the farming community, the agriculture policy and the food market within the organic sector, nor any co-ordination between general agriculture and organic farming institutions across domains.
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
Marche, Marche, Marche, Marche, Sicily – and ItalySicily – and ItalySicily – and ItalySicily – and Italy
The two regional cases show very different conditions for the develop- ment in organic farming. In Marche, organic farming developed as part of a (co-operative) movement in response to social problems of agriculture and unemployment in the region, in accordance with the socio-cultural tradition of sharecropping and influenced by political parties. In Sicily, organic farming has developed on a more pragmatic basis, as it was originally pulled forward by demand for citrus fruits from foreign, mainly
German, biodynamic firms willing to pay price premiums while – more recently – the development was pushed forward by EU organic farming support that served as a general means for farmers to obtain public support along with increasing earnings stemming from continuing growth in exports.
In Marche, there seems to be a difference in beliefs regarding organic farming between provinces and parties as organic farming is accepted in the north but neglected in the south of the region. In Sicily, general agriculture institutions seem in favour of – or at least not against – the development of organic farming while there are conflicts between organic certifying bodies. Although it is clear that the relative economic position of organic farming – when compared with non-organic farming – is
important for a farmer’s decision to convert, it is also tempting to see an explanatory interrelationship between these facts and the way organic farming has developed in each region.
The institutional environment of Marche is characterised by neglect and non-co-operation and hence by some level of competition between organic and general agriculture institutions, which seems related to a slow
development of organic farming. In Sicily, the institutional environment is more co-operative as conflict mainly takes place among organic certifi- cation bodies and this is related to rapid development, which appears strongly influenced by changes in political support. Against this
background of internal variations relating to certain aspects of the Italian situation, a picture of the total Italian situation is outlined in the
following sub-sections – still emphasising the dynamics of the institutional environment.