Curso Nuclear

The role of speed in accident causation has long been established. Speed has been identified as a causal factor in up to 30% of all fatality and serious injury road accidents. The magnitude of the speeding problem has led to the development of numerous preventative strategies aimed at reducing the level of speeding behaviour. It is generally considered that the problem of excessive speed requires a coordinated approach which combines educational, engineering / environmental and enforcement elements. However, reducing the level of speeding behaviour has proven to be a difficult challenge and reliance has typically been placed on legislation and enforcement to deter the high proportion of offending motorists.

The primary means of imposing some control over the speeds at which motorists travel is through the use of speed limits. Speed limits are designed to take into account both the safety and mobility needs of society. In order to be effective, speed limits must be perceived by road users as being appropriate for the existing road environment conditions. This can be difficult to achieve because safety and mobility requirements are often in conflict. Although appropriate speed limits provide a high degree of control over speeding behaviour, a large proportion of drivers still travel at speeds greater than those nominated. In such situations the use of enforcement may be the most effective means of reducing this type of behaviour.

Effective speed enforcement operations must be designed so as to pose a real and significant threat to actual and potential speeding motorists. To achieve this objective, the primary focus of speed enforcement should be on increasing surveillance levels, and hence the actual and the perceived risk of detection. The supporting use of legal sanctions and ensuring that punishment is administered quickly and efficiently can also facilitate the deterrence process.

Traditional enforcement methods based upon police vehicle deployment options should focus on increasing the visibility and unpredictability of traffic policing operations. Highly visible stationary enforcement operations have the greatest deterrence potential when using police vehicle deployment methods. These activities should also be supported by the use of both marked (visible) and unmarked (non-visible) mobile speed enforcement operations in order to increase the unpredictability of where, how and when enforcement will be encountered.

Primary consideration should be given to the implementation of strategies based around the intensive use of automated speed enforcement devices. These devices, commonly referred to as speed cameras, have been shown to significantly reduce the level of speeding behaviour and can lead to large reductions in the number of speed related accidents and associated injuries. The use of speed cameras has also been shown to significantly improve the overall efficiency (in terms of financial cost and human resources) of speed enforcement operations.

To maximise the benefits and community acceptance of speed camera operations it is important that enforcement is primarily targeted at accident locations where speed is known to be a causal factor. Increasing the apprehension effectiveness of speed camera operations is also important and consideration should be given to the use of new automated digital imaging systems. These systems provide a means doubling existing apprehension rates due to the high resolution vehicle identification information produced. The ability to transmit offence information directly to a central processing office (film collection and development is not required) can, also, significantly reduce offence notification delays. The combined use of both fixed (unmanned) and temporary site (manned) speed camera operations has a number of benefits. Fixed site operations are less resource intensive and should be used at know accident locations and along rural and high speed motorways. The rotation of a small number of speed cameras among a series of fixed housing installations, which are strategically positioned along a roadway, should be considered as a cost effective means of creating an area wide deterrence effect. Temporary site operations should be used primarily in high density urban traffic environments. The use of an information display board, located several hundred meters after a speed camera site, should also be considered as a means of informing road users that a speeding offence has been detected.

Consideration should be given to the development of strategies designed to ensure better spatial deployment of available policing resources. The randomised targeting of speeding behaviour at traffic locations with a high accident risk potential, or where enforcement visibility can be maximised, is one such option that has considerable potential. The use of publicity to support speed enforcement activities is an essential requirement to raise community awareness and improve the effectiveness of enforcement operations. Reducing the size of enforcement tolerance levels on speed limits should also be considered as a means of reducing the level of speeding behaviour and ensuring greater adherence to posted speed limits.

There are a number of behavioural feedback strategies which may be used to increase the effectiveness of speed enforcement operations. Two methods which have been identified as having the potential to modify speeding behaviour and facilitate the overall effectiveness of enforcement operations include the use of public posting speed information displays and community based incentive programs. Consideration should be given to examining the possible application of these two approaches (especially incentive programs).

Legal sanctions are an important element in the process of deterring speeding behaviour. However, in order for sanctions to be an effective deterrent it is essential to first ensure that the perceived risk of apprehension is high. If road users believe that the likelihood of apprehension is low then the introduction of more severe penalties or new penalty systems, such as a point demerit scheme, may only have a minimal deterrent effect.

The actual type of penalty administered can also impact upon their deterrence effectiveness. Fines are an extremely efficient means of dealing with speeding offenders, however, their use as a stand alone countermeasure has been shown to be a relatively ineffective. Greater emphasis should be placed on the use licence suspension or revocation procedures. These types of sanctions, when related to travel speed over the posted limit, appear to be the most effective means of deterring speeding behaviour. Longer suspension periods (over 6 months) are considerably more effective than shorter suspension periods (less than 3 months).

When examining penalty structures, the development of strategies designed to target and deter repeat offenders should be given a high priority. Consideration should be given to the introduction of point demerit schemes as a means of relating the level of speeding behaviour to more severe penalty outcomes. The benefit of this type of scheme is that consistent, less serious speeding behaviour can still result in more severe sanctions if a certain number of speeding offences are committed within a specified time period.

Emphasis should be placed on increasing the credibility of speed zones so as to ensure greater acceptance and adherence, by road users, to the posted speed limits. Consideration should be given to the use of 'expert' systems for speed zoning classification. These expert systems provide a means of ensuring that speed limits are consistent across the entire road traffic network. The use of variable speed limits also has the potential to ensure that speeds remain consistent in relation to changing environmental and driving conditions.

Enforcement should not be relied upon as the sole means of reducing the level of speeding behaviour. Preventative strategies which target the "agents" of speeding, namely the vehicle and roadside environment should be considered as an alternative or supplementary means of reducing the level of speeding behaviour. The fitment of in-vehicle devices, which artificially control the maximum speed at which a vehicle can travel, has considerable potential. The use of these speed limiting devices could improve policing

efficiency by effectively eliminating the need for enforcement on maximum speed limit road stretches.

Increased emphasis should be placed on the use of measures designed to physically modify the roadside environment. Engineering treatments such as roundabouts and speed humps have been shown to be extremely effective speed control devices. The use of perceptual speed countermeasures may also offer a low cost means of reducing the level of speeding behaviour. Treatments such as transverse lines, lane width reductions and enhanced centre and edge line markings, have been shown to influence a drivers' perception of speed and result in a reduction in their preferred travel speed.

Vehicle design characteristics may also need to be considered. Improving the accident avoidance capability of vehicles, as well as the level of protection provided to vehicle occupants, can potentially reduce the injury consequences of speeding behaviour. Active safety features such as anti-lock brakes and improved steering systems can reduce the likelihood of an accident occurring. Passive safety features such as airbags and seats belts can reduce the severity of injuries once an accident situation has occurred.

7.4 SEAT BELT ENFORCEMENT

Seat belts are regarded as being one of the most effective means of reducing traffic injuries. It has been estimated that vehicle occupants who correctly use seat belts are 40% to 50% less likely to sustain serious or fatal injuries in an accident situation. Increasing the level of seat belt usage requires a coordinated approach involving educational, engineering and enforcement measures. However, in many countries seat belt enforcement is not actively pursued and reliance has typically been placed upon legislation, education and publicity to increase usage rates.

Legislation should be based on the policy of 'primary' enforcement in order to support the increased use of more active enforcement operations. The experience in those countries where seat belt laws are actively enforced has shown that wearing rates over 90% can be achieved. The introduction of compulsory use laws for all seating position should be given immediate priority. Special consideration should be given to mandating the use of child restraint devices, such as harnesses, boosters and baby capsules. These devices have been shown to be an effective means of reducing injuries among child occupants (0 to 5 years). Consideration should be given to the use of information obtained from automated speed enforcement operations as a means of detecting seat belt offences and significantly increasing the actual and perceived risk of apprehension. Targeting speed offenders has a number of benefits. Firstly, seat belt offenders tend to be more high risk road users and are likely to have committed other offences such as speeding. Secondly, seat belt effectiveness is directly related to speeding behaviour in that the higher the travel speed the greater the injury potential (and need for some form of protection) in an accident situation.

Police commitment is essential to the success of seat belt enforcement operations. Special consideration should be given to the implementation of police education programs. These programs are essential to increase police motivation and raise awareness regarding the benefits of, and need 1;o, enforce seat belt laws. Education programs should be targeted at developing a greater appreciation of the safety and cost benefits associated with increased seat belt wearing rates. These education programs should also be designed to provide police with structured guidelines regarding the development of the most appropriate and effective seat belt enforcement strategies.

The simplest and most cost effective enforcement strategy is one which ensures that seat belt checks are adopted as a standard operational procedure when undertaking other forms traffic policing activities requiring roadside stopping of motorists. However, this type of enforcement strategy is often difficult to implement due to a general reluctance, and poor motivation among police to actively enforce seat belt laws. The use of police education programs, performance incentive schemes and supporting publicity may help to increase police motivation towards seat belt enforcement.

Special consideration should be given to the development and implementation of periodic, high intensity enforcement strategies ('blitzes'). This type of enforcement operation has been shown to be the most effective means of bringing about 'sharp' and sustained increases in seat belt wearing rates. To maximise the benefits of these enforcement operations it is important that they are supported by police education programs, sustained high levels of publicity, and post enforcement evaluation studies.

Enforcement activities should be supported by high levels of publicity. Publicity programs provide an effective means of increasing community awareness of the benefits of seat belt usage and can improve the effectiveness of seat belt enforcement operations by increasing the perceived risk of apprehension. Evaluation programs should be an important consideration in the development of seat belt enforcement strategies. These programs provide police with feedback regarding the effectiveness of their efforts and allow for the development of more effective enforcement strategies.

Consideration should be given to the more widespread implementation of seat belt incentive programs. These programs have been found to be an effective alternative to enforcement operations and may actually have a more sustained long term effect on wearing rates. The combined use of incentive programs with enforcement may warrant special consideration. The use of these type of combined strategies have been shown to be a particularly effective means of increasing seat belt usage rates.

The use of feedback devices, designed specifically to remind occupants to use their seat belts, should be actively promoted. The use of in-vehicle seat belt warning devices and the simple attachment of a seat belt usage sticker on the dashboard of the vehicle have been shown to have considerable potential. A more drastic yet effective countermeasure may be the installation of some form of seat belt interlock device. The use of public posting signs is one further feedback device that has been shown to have the potential to increase seat belt wearing rates.