Single mothers in this study, as highlighted in Chapter one refer to women who are mothers and not married, including those with partners and those who are cohabiting (Nelson, 2000; Broussard et al., 2012). These women are not married but have children, are widowed with children, separated, deserted or officially divorced women with children, but can be cohabiting or staying with a partner. Based on this description, the single mothers are in different stages in their lives, ranging from teenage mothers to mothers who are in the late adulthood stage. What is common among these women in this study is that they are single and mothers and live in a low-income urban community. This section describes the different life stages of these mothers, using the psychosocial stages conceptualised by Erik Erikson (1959). The four stages that are looked at are the identity versus identity diffusion;
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intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity versus despair (Lefrancois, 1993; Dunkel & Sefcek, 2009).
2.2.1 Developmental Tasks
Developmental tasks are milestones reached after gaining some new major competencies or skills. They can also be defined as the occurrence of a significant event with important psychological consequences (Lefrancois, 1993). Different developmental tasks that take place in the adolescent, young, middle and late adulthood life stages will be discussed.
The adolescence life stage is referred to as the identity versus identity diffusion stage according to Erikson’s (1959) psychosocial development stages. The major developmental tasks in this life stage are to develop a strong sense of self-identity (Lefrancois, 1993); it is at this stage that an individual develops their self-certainty and deals with self-consciousness (Slater, 2003).
The intimacy versus isolation stage is estimated to be around the ages of 20 to the mid-30 years, usually termed young adulthood and is characterised by people developing close relationship with others and achieving the intimacy required for forming relationships as opposed to being isolated (Hamachek, 1990; Lefrancois, 1993).
The seventh stage of Erik Erikson’s (1959) psychosocial stages is generativity versus stagnation which occurs in middle adulthood (Van Hiel, Mervielde & De Fruyt, 2006). In this stage people are actively raising their children and the biggest task is to strike a balance between generativity and stagnation (Van Hiel et al., 2006). The people at this stage are concerned with the general welfare of others, which includes their immediate family members and community members (Hamachek, 1990; Lefrancois, 1993; Van Hiel, 2006).
The last stage of the psychosocial stages as conceptualised by Erik Erikson (1959) is the integrity
versus despair stage which takes place in the late adulthood. At this stage the individual is getting
closer to death and has to deal with the reality that they may die at any point. The major development task in this stage is evaluation of the life lived; the individual takes a look back and assesses what they have been able to accomplish and what they have not been able to achieve (Lefrancois, 1993). If upon this evaluation the individual comes to a conclusion that they have done well in life they will consequently have feelings of satisfaction and integrity. If, however, evaluation in negative, a sense of despair arises as the individual has to face the reality that there is not much time left on earth to do anything to change what has happened (Lefrancois, 1993).
There has been some criticism of the Erikson’s conceptualisation of the psychosocial stages by writers who have pointed out some of its shortcomings (Peck, 1986; Gilligan, 2003; Sorell & Montgomery,
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2009). These include that the psychosocial development is depicted to be in tandem with biological growth and development, which is not always true as some people, especially women, may be going through development tasks in one life stage while still in another (Sorell & Montgomery, 2011). The fact that these life stages are presented as linear therefore may not be entirely accurate (Peck, 1986). Another argument is that the theory is androcentric in that it places men and their interests, as well as their preferences and characteristics, at the centre (Sorell & Montgomery, 2009). This is done through the emphasis of the theory on acquiring independence and autonomy, which favours males more than females, as women and girls base their identity in the development and sustenance of caring relationships (Gilligan, 2003). Peck (1986) points out that models of psychological development, including Erikson’s (1959) model, were based almost exclusively upon men’s life experiences, which therefore does not take into account women’s life experiences. Gilligan (1977, 2003) has strongly emphasised the need for a developmental model which is sensitive to and reflects the life experiences of women. In particular, Gilligan (1977, 2003) has called for a reassessment of the role of relationships and attachment in a woman’s adult life.
Germain and Gitterman (1996)have advanced the life course concept, which is an aspect of the life model of social work practice. This model helps to address some of the shortcomings identified in Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages (1959). The life course refers to the unique pathways that each individual takes from conception to birth and old age in varied environments and varied life experiences (Germain & Gitterman, 1996). The life course is anchored in an “ecological view of non- uniform, indeterminable pathways of bio-psychosocial development within diverse environments and cultures” (Germain & Gitterman, 1996:21). The life course emphasises the following tenets: human diversity; the self-regulating, self-directing and indeterminable nature of human beings; environmental diversity; newly emerging family forms and their special tasks and developmental issues; rapid shifts in societal and community values; and the critical significance of global and local environments (Germain & Gitterman, 1996).
The life course places human development and social functioning in a matrix of historical, individual and social time. The life course theory can be very useful in understanding the situation of single mothers central in this study. Although the theory will not help list expected behaviour patterns of single mothers, it does give an avenue for understanding single mothers on their own terms; their life experiences, their varied environments and their different needs. The points brought forward in the feminist psychological theory (Peck, 1986; Gilligan, 2003) and women’s development will also be taken into account, so as to present a balanced view of the life experiences of women.
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It can be concluded that the life stages of single mothers are different because the needs of these mothers are varied depending on their life stages and levels of development, whether physically, emotionally, socially or cognitively. The social support accorded to these mothers should therefore be responsive to their different needs. The following section of this chapter explores the concept of social support and why it is important, as well as the social support needs of single mothers in low- income urban areas.