CAPTACIÓN DE AGUA ÍNDICE
3. DESBASTE 1 INTRODUCCIÓN
Studies examining financial exclusion are dominated by policy studies, undertaken either by policy agencies or by academic researchers on behalf of policy agencies. Several studies have been published directly and have also been published in the academic literature.
a) The Financially Excluded Population in OECD Countries
In addition to the lack of definitional clarity, there is also a general lack of reliable data in respect to financial exclusion (Sinclair, 2001). Consequently, estimates of levels of adult financial exclusion in OCED countries tend to vary. Using account ownership as a proxy, studies in the UK and Europe indicate between 5% and 20% of the adult population of core European Union countries is financially excluded (British Bankers Association, 2002; Carbo et al., 2005, p. 5; European Commission, 2008, p. 18; Kempson & Whyley, 1999). The level of financial exclusion rises to 34% for the adult population of new European Union member countries (principally ex‐Soviet countries) (European Commission, 2008, p. 18). Hogarth and O’Donnell (1999), using panel data from the US Survey of Consumer Finances have found between 10% ‐ 20% of Americans has neither a savings account nor a cheque account. Washington (2006), using panel data from the US Survey of Income and Program Participation, determined 35% ‐ 45% of low income households in the USA do not own any form of bank account.
Care must be taken in interpreting these estimates. Ownership of a bank account does not necessarily imply usage of the account or participation in the electronic payments system (the core of the contemporary financial transaction system). In addition, lack of ownership of a bank account may not be indicative of financial exclusion in countries in which cash continues
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to be the most common payment method (for example most developing countries and EU new‐member countries) and collective savings models continue to be popular (for example, building societies and credit unions). Carbo and colleagues (2005, p. 5) note approximately 20% of the adult population in the UK can be considered to be ‘on the margin of financial services’ as the household owns only one bank account. Whether the account is a transaction account or safe custody (savings) is not stated. Kempson and Whyley also find between 15% and 23% of the adult population in the UK does not have a transaction account and therefore cannot make non‐cash payments (Kempson & Whyley, 1999). The effective level of financial exclusion in the UK may exceed 23%. Revolving credit (bank overdrafts and credit cards) and mortgage lending can also be seen as significant indicators of participation in the financial system. The UK Office of Fair Trading (1999a, 1999b), estimates approximately 19% of households in the UK do not use any form of credit.
b) The Financially Excluded Population in Developing Countries
As Karlan and Morduch (2010, p. 4705) and Rutherford (2000) note, low income households in developing countries have the same core financial needs as affluent households: the ability to manage cash flows, mechanisms for accumulating assets, and tools to cope with risk. There is limited research examining household‐level financial inclusion in developing countries (Beck, Demirguc‐Kunt, & Martinez Peria, 2008; Honohan, 2005). A cross‐country data set has been developed by Beck and Honohan (both previously researchers at the World Bank) and members of the World Bank Finance and Private Sector Research team led by Demirguc‐Kunt. As primary data sources are limited, indicators are derived principally from data supplied to the World Bank by central banks (the ‘World Bank Financial Structure’ data set6). Ownership of a bank deposit account was used as a proxy for financial inclusion. Several studies of financial inclusion in sub‐Saharan countries have been undertaken by the Finmark Trust7 (the ‘Finscope’ studies8) to determine access to retail financial services across transaction, deposit and credit product groups. There have also been a number of ad hoc studies. For example, Solo has examined financial outreach in several South American countries (Tovia Maria Solo, 2008; Tova Maria Solo & Manroth, 2006); the Asian Development Bank has examined financial
6 http://go.worldbank.org/S3EWEOI440. For a discussion of the dataset refer Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and
Levine (Beck, Demirguc-Kunt, & Honohan, 2009), and Beck and Demirguc-Kunt (Beck et al., 2009)
7 www.finmark.org.za 8 www.finscope.co.za
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outreach, primarily in the Asia‐Pacific region (Fernando, 2007) and the Indian government has examined financial exclusion in India (Committee on Financial Sector Reforms, 2009).
Using the World Bank Financial Structure dataset, Beck and colleagues (2009) have found that typically less than 50% of the adult population has access to the banking system in developing countries. FinMark Trust (2007) has found levels of financial exclusion in several sub‐Saharan countries ranging from 40% in South Africa to greater than 80% in Uganda. Honohan, using the World Bank data set has found the level of financial exclusion in South Africa to be approximately 54 percent9. Deshpande and Pickens (2006), in a study examining savings activity in Uganda found a similar level of financial exclusion to those estimated by the Finmark Trust. Solo (Tovia Maria Solo, 2008; Tova Maria Solo & Manroth, 2006) has found levels of household financial exclusion between 65% and 85% of households in Brazil, Colombia and Mexico. Fernando (2007) in an Asian Development Bank study has noted that ‘in a typical developing economy in the Asia and Pacific region, the formal financial system at best serves no more than 20–30% of the population, and excludes 70–80%, the vast majority of whom are low‐income households in rural areas’. The Indian Committee on Financial Sector Reforms (2009), found a very broad diversity in levels of financial exclusion in India. Exclusion among the affluent population was found to be between 5% and 10%, reflecting developed country levels; whereas 85% of agricultural wage labourers were found to be financially excluded.