Diagnóstico actual de las áreas de compra y almacenamiento de palta Hass en la empresa

In order for education systems to achieve quality teaching that positively impact on student learning, requires collaborative efforts on the part of teacher education institutions, education authorities and the school community. Preservice and in- service teachers require more effective professional learning opportunities that are intensive and ongoing than traditionally been offered (Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). Therefore, it is important that education systems prepare and support teachers to grow professionally in order for them to possess high-order teaching skills (including assessment skills) and deep understanding of subject content as well as pedagogical content knowledge. This is a necessary step in as far as providing teachers with skills to enhance quality teaching that will enable students to possess higher-order thinking skills so that they will be able to succeed in life. This section examines the literature reviewed on professional development models to enhance teachers’ teaching and assessment practices that contribute to improved student performance.

3.4.1 Professional development

This section first defines professional development. Then an outline of three key professional development models is presented, followed by a discussion on the model that appears to be more appropriate for the study.

Professional development means different things to different people. Some associate the term with images of a one-off workshop conducted in a day or several days. To others, it refers to a process in which teachers work under supervision to enhance their professional practice (Diaz-Maggioli, 2003). Yet others consider it from a more personal perspective of teacher professional learning whereby teachers engage in activities that enable them to learn new

knowledge, skills, and understandings of subject matter and pedagogical principles (Guskey, 2000).

In this study, professional development in the context of practicing teachers is defined as the strategy used to support teachers to strengthen their instructional practices throughout their career (Mizell, 2010). Hence, the term professional development as used in this study includes, but is not always limited to, the process referred to in the literature as staff development, teacher development or teacher in-service training (Muir, Beswick, & Williamson, 2010). Teacher professional development can be conducted on-site or at school. It can also occur off-site such as by attendance by participants at seminars, conferences, workshops, on-line training or modular programs over a period of time or through network activities (Rogers, 2007). The term professional learning is also used in the literature to mean teacher development and is conceptualised as “a product of both externally provided and job-embedded activities that increase teachers’ knowledge, which can shift their instructional practice in ways that support student learning” (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2009, p. 1).

It is widely acknowledged that not all professional development activities can lead to professional learning despite how well the activities are designed and delivered (Easton, 2008; Fullan, 2007). Fullan argues that the approaches applied to improve instruction are seldom “powerful, specific or sustained enough to change the culture of the classroom and school” (p. 35). He reiterated the assertion made by Elmore (2004, p. 73) that “improvement about all entails learning to do the right things in the setting where [one works]”. Easton (2008) contends that the most powerful learning opportunities include active learning embedded in teachers’ work, where students’ work are assessed to identify their strengths and learning needs. Consequently, teachers identify their own areas of learning needs and work towards improving them. Such teacher-orientation in their work, which is focused on students’ learning needs, can lead to positive educational outcomes.

To help teachers in their professional learning needs, facilitators need to consider an appropriate professional development model that takes into account both student and teacher needs. There exists no empirically tested model of teacher

professional development that has been proven to be effective across all settings (MacNeil, 2004). Nonetheless, the literature provides guidelines for teacher professional development that have broad appeal and compelling workable frameworks for designing and analysing teacher professional development programs (Elmore, 2002). These are explored next to identify a suitable professional development model for the current study.

3.4.2 Professional development models

The literature indicates that there is a range of models of professional development to choose from. Gaible and Burns (2005) categorise teacher professional development (TPD) models into three broad groups; (i) Standardised TPD, (ii) School-Centred TPD and (ii) Individual or Self-Directed TPD.

The Standardised TPD model focuses on training that emphasise sharing of skills and knowledge on specific areas of teacher needs, and is offered by facilitators through a face-to-face mode. This model involves a ‘cascade’ or ‘training-of- trainers’ approach, where one or two champion teachers at a school attend centralised workshops to learn and build their skills in an area of need. At the end of the workshop, the teachers would return to their school and conduct training to their colleagues, as well as apply what they learn to their practice. The Standardised TPD model has the advantage of exposing teachers to new ideas and new ways of thinking and doing aspects of classroom practices. It also helps teachers to meet new colleagues and open new networking opportunities to support each other. The model is also useful for a cascading approach whereby “knowledge and instructional methods” can be disseminated to a large group of teachers throughout the country (Gaible & Burns, 2005, p. 19).

The School-Centred TPD also known as Site-Based or Cluster-Based often takes place in schools, resource centres and teacher training institutions. The model is suitable for offering training activities at a central location, and involves schools to share resources in the cluster of district. Groups of teachers from the various schools that are invited to attend work with internal or external facilitators or master teachers as resource persons (MacNeil, 2004). Site-based TPD often focus on the specific, situational problems that individual teachers encounter as they try

to implement new techniques. The Site-based model is suitable for bringing teachers to address issues and needs over a period of time; it encourages individual initiative and collaborative approaches to common problems that teachers may find in their classrooms. It also allows more flexible, sustained and intensive TPD and provides ongoing opportunities for professional learning among teachers (Gaible & Burns, 2005).

As the name implies, Self-Directed TPD requires teachers to determine their own professional development goals and to select activities that will assist them to achieve the goals set. The professional learning activities that individual teachers engaged in include watching video on the topic of interest, reading books on education, field work, keeping journals, performing case studies, taking online course and observing classes taught by colleagues. Teachers often participate in informal or self-directed learning activities, for example, when they sought experienced colleagues for advice on specific topics that they are interested to know more about. The teacher takes all the responsibility for his/her own learning. According to Gaible and Burns (2005) self-directed activities are most effective with teachers who are motivated, self-starters, and who have already developed teaching skills and subject mastery. The Self-Directed TPD is suitable when there are no other organised professional development options in the setting. It should be considered when self-motivation and innovative individual teachers’ opportunities for learning are not on offer. For this model of TPD to work, all required support, incentives and structures should be provided to ensure that self- directed TPD effectively meet teacher professional learning needs (Gaible & Burns, 2005).

From the three professional development models examined, the standardised teacher professional development model appeared to be appropriate model for addressing the science teachers’ professional learning needs. In essence, the standardised teacher professional development focuses on training that emphasises sharing of skills, knowledge and experiences on specific areas of teacher assessment needs (Gaible & Burns, 2005). The intent of the teacher professional development in summative assessment was to assist the six science teachers from different secondary schools that participated in this study to

enhance their summative practices and improve the quality of their assessment practices and students’ learning outcomes.

3.4.3 Characteristics of professional development

The studies reviewed identified some form of positive effects on teachers, especially increases in knowledge, skills and changes in classroom practices as a result of professional development activities (Garet, et al., 2001; Shepardson, 2001b; Wei, et al., 2009). In fact, a growing body of empirical research suggests that a set of key features are common to effective professional development; five of these are discussed here. These are (a) focus on content knowledge, (b) active learning, (c) coherence with other learning activities (d) duration, and (e) collective participation (Desimone, 2011; Garet, et al., 2001; Wei, Darling- Hammond, & Adamson, 2010; Wei, et al., 2009). These features of professional development have been proven to lead to improved teacher knowledge, teaching practice and students’ learning achievements.

Focus on content knowledge

Effective professional development focuses on subject matter content knowledge and how students learn the content (Desimone, 2011; Garet, et al., 2001; Guskey, 2003; Timperley, 2008; Wei, et al., 2010). According to Guskey (2003), it is essential to support teachers to understand the subject content (e.g. science) they teach as well as to support them in ways in which they can help their students learn better the content taught. Timperley (2008) states that teachers should be assisted so that they can learn how to identify the pedagogical content knowledge and skills they need to assist their students to learn specific curriculum content. Timperley is of the view that teachers can integrate their knowledge about subject content matter, curriculum knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, and “...how to teach it, and how to assess, to see if students have learned it” (Timperley, 2008, p. 11). Such steps are crucial in supporting teachers to grow professionally.

Active learning

This element of effective professional development refers to the strategies used to engage teachers to become active and responsible learners. In general, the

strategies successfully used are centered on commitment to learning. According to Desimone (2011) and others (Dufour, et al., 2010; Roberts & Pruitt, 2009), opportunities should be provided to teachers to get them involved in what they are learning through the activities they are asked to do during professional development sessions. Teachers should be allowed to observe, receive feedback, analyse their student work including their own work as well as to make presentations instead of sitting through the professional development sessions (Desimone). In the context of professional development that focus on strengthening teachers’ assessment practices, Harlen (2004b, 2009) advocates that teachers should be provided opportunities to diagnose their students’ weaknesses through assessments that are used to serve either formative or summative purposes and to inform their instructional decisions. Such active learning opportunities should help teachers to reflect on their practices including their experiences of what they learned (Roberts & Pruitt, 2009).

Reflective thinking, learning, and practice have the potential to improve teaching practices and student learning outcomes, and can enable individual teachers to explore a variety of ways to improve their teaching practices and students’ learning (York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere, & Montie, 2006). In reference to early studies on professional learning, Wei et al. (2009) emphasise the importance of involving modelling that seeks after practices and constructing opportunities for teachers to practice and reflect on the new strategies.

Buck and Trauth-Nare (2009) in their study on preparing teachers to make formative assessment integral to science teaching and learning, found the importance of self-reflection. They suggested that teachers should be provided opportunities to contemplate the efficacy of classroom assessment practices, from initial teacher education programs and throughout the duration of in-service professional development programs. Opportunities should also be provided to teachers so that they can dialogue with their colleagues during the professional learning sessions to explore ways in which they can fully utilise data relating to their own practices and students learning (Timperley, et al., 2007).

Coherence with other learning activities

The third element of professional development that can contribute to positive impact on teachers’ instructional practices is the consistency in offering professional development activities with other key learning activities such as school-wide reform initiatives and polices (Desimone, 2011). According to Wei et al. (2010), professional development can be successful if it is offered as a coherent component of school reform initiatives. This means that assessments, standards, and professional development activities that target teachers are linked.

In general professional activities and reforms in education all focus on the professional growth of teachers that can lead to improved teacher instructional practices and gains in student learning outcomes. However, the activities are often implemented on a system-wide scale. Desmond (2011) pointed out that the professional development activities designed for teachers should be consistent with the overarching knowledge, beliefs, and principles associated with school reforms and policies that aim to achieve general improvement in the quality of teaching and students learning outcomes. Studies on specific professional development activities that are aligned with school or large-scale reform initiatives show that teachers benefit professionally much to the advantages of their schools and students’ outcomes (McMunn, et al., 2003; Timperley, et al., 2007; Wei, et al., 2009).

Duration

The duration of professional development is most effective when it is conducted in an intensive and ongoing manner over a sustained period (Wei, et al., 2010). In other words, it should be spread over the school calendar rather than presenting it as a one-off workshop per year. Professional development should not be fragmented and done on ad hoc basis, as it needs to involve ongoing inquiry, experimentation, and assessment that would enable teachers to reflect and improve on their teaching effectiveness (Roberts & Pruitt, 2009). Ongoing professional development does not mean that teachers are involved in the same workshop in a repeated number of times. Rather, it is an ongoing process involving a variety of activities that focus on teacher professional needs. Wei et al. (2009) found that common features that characterise effective professional

development practices in high achieving countries allocated ample time for professional development activities that are embedded in teachers’ contexts and that are ongoing over a period of time. Not only were teachers’ contexts considered but there was also collaboration built into teachers’ work hours (Wei et al., 2009).

Collective participation

Studies on professional development have identified collective participation of teachers as an important feature of effective professional development (Dufour, et al., 2010; Hord & Sommers, 2008). It involves groups of teachers from the same grade, subject or school participating in professional development activities together to build an interactive learning community (Desimone, 2011; Dufour, 2004; Dufour & Eaker, 1998). The professional learning community is comprised of groups of teachers who collaboratively work together to achieve their common goals in teaching. In doing so, they share ideas, reflect on their existing practices as they are introduced to new ways of thinking and practices, and learn collaboratively from each other (Guskey, 2003; Roberts & Pruitt, 2009). Locks- Horsley et al. (2010) contend that teachers are able to transform new learning into practice when they work and learn collaboratively, rather in isolation or learn and work independently from each other. This strategy supports teachers to work together as they practice and apply new strategies in their teaching, reflect on results, and make continuous improvement. In a study to explore how teachers might enhance their competence in summative assessment in ways which might also have a positive effect on their teaching and learning, Black, Harrison, Hodgen, Marshall and Serret (2011) found that the teachers they worked with agreed that “the opportunities to work together on task construction had both improved their judgement of task quality and produced useful teaching materials” (p.457).

From the discussion, it is clear that there are certain characteristics of professional development that need to be considered when designing and implementing teacher professional development. The literature helps to identify these characteristics. The present study will adopt the core features of effective professional development described above in the design and in the implementation of the

professional development activities. However, it will be interesting to find out how individual teachers engaged in this study will respond or react to the learning environment that is going to be established during the professional development sessions.