CAPÍTULO III. RESULTADOS
3.2. Diseño del sistema de compra y almacenamiento de palta Hass
It is desirable to change teachers’ classroom practices which include teaching and assessment practices so that they can focus more on constructing valid and quality assessment, to assess their students’ learning and to use the data obtained to support the students in ways to improve their learning achievements. Whilst there have been successes in changing teachers assessment practices whether it be to help teachers use assessments for formative or summative purposes (Black, Harrison, Hodgen, Marshall, & Serret, 2008) effectively, research has indicated that changes in assessment practice have been challenging and difficult to sustain (Gardner, Harlen, Hayward, & Stobart, 2008; Webb & Jones, 2009). For example, research conducted to support teachers to change their assessment practices that focus on assessment for learning in the UK (Black, et al., 2003), United States (Elmore, 2003), and in New Zealand (Gilmore, 2008; Timperley, et al., 2007) indicate that teachers do make slight to moderate changes, but overall it is difficult to effect such changes in large secondary schools (Hill, 2011).
This section examines research relating to teacher professional development that focuses on changing teachers’ assessment practices particularly in science. It examines the enablers and disablers that determine the successes or failures of the teacher professional development initiatives.
Research on professional development in assessment in science emphasises the importance of establishing a framework for collaborating with teachers to change classroom assessment practices. According to Shepardson (2001a, pp. 1-2) professional development activities that build on teachers’ existing understandings of assessment, should take into “consideration the context of the science classroom ad learners and incorporate teacher collaboration and teacher reflection”, and provide continuous support are more likely to be successful in changing teachers’ assessment practice. Lieberman and Wilkins (2006) share a
similar view that teacher professional development should be aligned with the needs of the school, teachers and students. These factors need to be considered because schools are so different in context, composition and need, and that the professional development model should be flexible enough to allow teachers options for individualised, grade-level, and subject area training. Wiliam et al. (2004) who adopted a professional development model that focuses on teachers as learners that actively participate in their own learning and school environment over a six month period demonstrated that the science and mathematics teachers they worked with to adopt assessment for learning strategies improved their students’ achievements.
The results of three case studies by Hill (2011) in large New Zealand secondary schools demonstrated that the critical school-level factors that contributed to the shifts that teachers made to switch from summative assessment orientation to assessment for learning practices were dependent upon tailoring the professional learning to the individual school context. The school level factors included engaging school principals as key ‘conductor’ of change – the principals were assessment literate and aligned job descriptions and appraisal with assessment for learning as well as provided resources. Hill reported that there was also active involvement of senior staff and management team who organised professional learning activities. According to Hill, the schools provided opportunities for teachers to meet regularly to discuss and attempt new things so there was cross- curricular teacher learning about assessment for learning. Most importantly, Hill added that assessment for learning was embedded as part of the school program and culture. Hill stated that the facilitation model was tailored to the needs of each school which was comprised of assessment literate facilitators. These facilitators supported school leaders and teachers in the change process to build internal accountability systems with school policies (Hill). It can be seen that the Standard TPD model, which is the preferred model for exploring teachers changing assessment practices in this study, is dependent on the assessment literacy level of the facilitator.
Moreover, a research that was conducted to develop an understanding of the experiences of a sixth-grade science teacher with more than three years of
classroom experience to improve student learning through formative assessment indicated that the teacher changed positively to the professional development offered (Buck & Trauth-Nare, 2009). According to Buck and Trauth-Nare, the teacher changed her classroom assessment practices because professional support was provided and allowed the teacher the opportunity to question the validity of tacit pedagogical understanding, identify and understand what the students’ needs were and was given opportunity to explore a more reflective classroom.
The examples on changing teachers’ assessment practices demonstrate the shift in assessment emphasis—from summative assessment to assessment of learning. This study was concerned with building teachers’ summative assessment practices. Hence, the literature that focuses on change that teachers experience needs to be examined. The findings of a project undertaken by Black and his colleagues (2010) that explored and developed teachers’ understanding of summative assessment and its practice is of particular interest to this study. In this study, Black et al. (2010) applied both “intervention and research elements” (p.215). The intervention approach sought to explore how the teachers might improve on their assessment practices while they re-examined the validity of the summative assessment tasks. This was followed by engagement of teachers “in moderation exercises within and between schools to audit examples of students’ work and to discuss their appraisals of these examples” (Black et al., 2010, p. 215). Findings of the project indicated that the “teachers’ attention to validity issues had been undermined by the external examination regime” (p. 215). However, they were able to address the issues by “reflection on their values and by engagement in a shared development of portfolio assessments”(Black, et al., p. 215). This study indicated some of the steps that need to be considered when developing teachers’ summative assessment competencies and skills. According to Black et al. (2010) first and foremost is the need to find out teachers’ existing practices and the various factors that hinder them from taking the necessary steps to try new ways and the freedom to do so in their summative assessment practices. Teachers should then be allowed opportunity to reflect amongst and between themselves on their weaknesses in assessment, and to work together to improve not only their theories but also their assumptions that cause practice in their own summative assessment (Black et al., 2010). The present study considered and
adopted these steps as a way to explore the six science teachers’ existing summative assessment practices.
As part of longitudinal study Black et al. (2011) determined how “teachers might enhance their competence in summative assessment in ways which might also have a positive impact on their teaching and learning of their students” (p. 452). To do this, Black et al. (2010) employed a strategy based on five key elements of summative assessment practices. First, the teachers were asked to design their assessment tasks and second, implement them in the classroom. Third, the teachers collected data on their students’ performances on tasks through portfolios. Fourth, the teachers worked together to standardise and moderate the marking criteria and marks so that they were consistent and finally evaluated the impact on their practice (p.456-462). The findings of this longitudinal study revealed that the project enhanced teachers’ competence to develop assessment related to validity issues and also used information derived from summative tests formatively to aid teaching and learning.
The study also found teachers’ existing assessment practices discouraged aspects of the national curriculum and de-skilled teachers. So the assessment intervention made the teachers become more aware of and understand the national curriculum criteria. Teachers had the opportunity to discuss validity of summative assessment they designed and included open-ended tasks to replace multiple question tests. They also formulated clear specification of the criteria designed to assess their students’ work. In doing so, the teachers realised they needed more time to develop shared understanding of the criteria. Finally, the teachers in the study reported through their journals that they had not resolved all their assessment needs but felt satisfied that they have learned useful lessons and suggested that other teachers would benefit from such interventions provided that extensive professional training is offered (Black, et al., 2011).
Reform agendas in science education recommend major shifts in emphasis on teaching of science including assessment. For example, the Standards movement in the United States highly recommends less emphasis on testing students for factual information in a summative manner and more information on continuously
assessing student understanding to improve their learning (National Research Council, 1996). For this to happen, Gardner et al. (2008) emphasise that in order to create sustained changes in assessment practices a number of key processes would need to be considered – which include finding out assessment literacy inadequacies of teachers, designing of innovation and delivery of professional learning activities by competent facilitators and evaluating the impact of the professional development. Gardner et al. (2008) also emphasise the need for facilitators to focus on a set of principles and standards to guide the development of effective assessment practices. Such standards and characteristics of effective professional development are suggested in this review.
The discussions reveal some success in changing teachers’ assessment practices whether or not it is to satisfy a formative or summative purpose. However, it is also acknowledged that teachers do encounter challenges when they attempt to switch from traditional instructional practices to reform-orientated approaches such as to change the assessment strategies teachers used traditionally. As discussed in section 3.3, there are several factors such as beliefs teachers hold that influence their instructional practices. In order to change teachers to conform to reform-orientated approaches from their traditional instructional and assessment practices, as this study attempted to do, requires teachers to adjust their beliefs (Cavanagh, 2006). If teachers are not supported to make the necessary adjustments, they are likely to resist change and continue to maintain traditional instructional practices (Perry, Howard, & Tracey, 1999, cited in Muir, Beswick & Williamson, 2010), including the types of assessment and purposes they are used for.
Apart from beliefs, ‘top-down expert’ approach to teacher professional development inhibits teacher engagement in their own learning (Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992, cited in Muir, Beswick & Williamson, 2010). So there are professional learning programs that require teachers to participate in ‘one-off sessions’ such sessions inhibit sustained changes in their instructional practice. This is because teachers are not influenced that the change process would not benefit them. Hence, they do not see the need to adjust their beliefs and because they believe that their knowledge of teaching or assessment practices do not need
to change (D’Ambrosio, Harkness, & Boone, 2004, cited in Muir, Beswick & Williamson, 2010). Similarly, studies have indicated that teachers reject or resist professional learning opportunities imposed on them particularly when the focus is on selection of content for which they do not believe they need to learn, or when there is delay until the innovation has been superseded (Hargreaves, 1996). Nevertheless, there is wide consensus amongst experts that professional development programs do provide learning opportunities for teachers which can influence teachers beliefs and expose them to teaching and assessment practices that are consistent with the reform agenda (Shepardson, 2001b). The next section delineates the conceptual framework for examining assessment practices.