Capítulo 3 Propuesta de documentación
3.6 Diagramas de secuencia
Like lyric poetry, philosophy (literally ʺthe love of wisdomʺ) arose with the awakening of the Greek world in the Archaic period. The earliest Greek philosophers, some of whom were the first to write in prose, are called the
Presocratics to distinguish them from the disciples of Socrates who lived in Athens in the Classical period. The Presocratics are also clearly differentiated from the Socratics in that the former concentrated their attention on the structure and development of the physical universe while the latter were more interested in ethics, in the role human beings play in relationship to one another and to the larger society.
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Cosmos: The Visible Sky
Because they did not have telescopes, the Greeks knew only the stars and the five planets they could see with the naked eye. But they were much more familiar with the night sky than most city dwellers are nowadays. Since there were no streetlights, smog, or tall buildings, their nights were filled with stars. They named the planets and constellations after their gods and characters in their myths, like Orion the hunter and the girls he pursued and never caught, the Pleiades. In the Works and Days Hesiodʹs agricultural calendar is addressed to farmers who learned when it was time to perform their seasonal chores by the position of the constellations. When Greeks sailed, they plotted their location by the position of celestial objects.
In the Archaic period, colonization, travel, and the development of trade and commerce spurred the growth of astronomical thinking. Contact with other
civilizations in Asia, especially Babylonia, where astronomical records of phenomena such as eclipses had been kept for centuries from as early as 1600 BC, showed there was some regularity and predictability in the movements of the stars and planets.
The Search for Origins
Unlike the Babylonian recordkeepers, early Greek astronomers tried to find
explanations for the celestial motions. They attempted to develop scientific models that not only would explain what had been observed but would predict future
observations. Then as now, the same scientists who were interested in understanding the universe searched for its origins. Then as now, the search often took as its first axiom that at the beginning there was only one substance, or very few, out of which all matter evolved.
The earliest Greek scientists we know of lived in Miletus in the sixth century. Their thoughts have been transmitted to us because they were quoted by later Greek
philosophers and scientists such as Aristotle. The Milesians were the first to abandon supernatural or religious explanations for natural phenomena and instead to seek purely physical causes. Thales, traditionally the first of the three great Milesians, was able to predict a solar eclipse and the solstices, thereby demonstrating that
occultation of the sun and the length of days were not determined by divine whim.
He also believed that the single origin of matter was water (for it could be
transformed into both gas and solid forms), and that the earth was flat and floated on water. In contrast, his fellow Milesian, Anaximander, called the original principle ʺThe Boundless,ʺ or ʺThe Indefiniteʺ; this limitless entity contained all matter, including such opposites as wet and dry and cold and hot. He postulated that the earliest creatures arose from slime warmed by the sunʹs heat, and he was also the first Greek to draw a geographical map. Another Milesian, Anaximenes, thought that
everything had evolved from air: it became fire when it was rarefied, could change to wind and cloud, and when condensed was transformed into solid substances. Like Thales, Anaximenes believed that the earth was flat, but he thought that it floated on air.
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Pythagoras, one of the most influential cosmologists, is familiar to us because of his discovery of the theorem that bears his name. He was born in Samos, but left around 531 BC because of the tyranny of Polycrates. Pythagoras settled in southern Italy and lived with a group of disciples. The original Pythagoreans and their successors followed strict rules in their daily lives. Women were included in the Pythagorean communities and were imbued with the philosophical doctrines that regulated the conduct of daily life. For example, the Pythagoreans observed many food taboos.
They were strict vegetarians, for they believed in transmigration of the soul.
Nevertheless, they were interested in worldly matters like politics and geometry.
Geometry (literally ʺtaking the measure of the earthʺ) was a theoretical and practical science of special importance in the ancient world where land was the most valuable commodity: the founding of new cities included the careful measurement of land into plots of equal size and its distribution to colonists.
Pythagoras believed that arithmetic also held the key to understanding the universe.
He postulated that the earth was a sphere in the center of a series of hollow spheres.
The stars were fixed on the outer spherical shell, and the planets on smaller shells within. Each day the stellar sphere rotated from east to west while the planetary spheres rotated from west to east at various rates. Their movement created a sound, but since the sound is always with us, we are unable to hear it. The Pythagorean theory of the musical harmony of the heavenly spheres is an example of an attempt to find, or even to impose, an aesthetically pleasing mathematical explanation for the movement of celestial bodies. More than a century later Plato, who was much
influenced by Pythagoreanism, also sought to explain the universe in terms of arithmetical abstractions and asserted that all celestial bodies move at the same rate in a circular path.
Document 3.4
Mortals made their gods, and furnished them with their own body, voice, and garments.
If a horse or lion or a slow ox had agile hands for paint and sculpture,
the horse would make his god a horse, the ox would sculpt an ox.
Our gods have flat noses and black skins say the Ethiopians. The Thracians say our gods have red hair and hazel eyes.
Xenophanes fr. 12‐14 Diehl; translated by Willis Barnstone, Greek Lyric Poetry. New York: Schocken, 1972, p. 131 adapted.
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Like Pythagoras, Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 550 BC) moved from the eastern Mediterranean to Magna Graecia where he traveled about as an exile. Fragments of his poems criticizing conventional religious and ethical beliefs are extant.
Xenophanesʹ ideas about the development of the cosmos were based on personal observation. For example, when he noticed fossil imprints of marine life and seaweed in three different locations inland, he theorized that they were produced long ago when the earth was covered with the mud produced by a mixture of seawater and earth. An important characteristic of early Greek science is that ideas circulated widely through the writing of books. Because the city‐states were nontheocratic, the early philosophers could freely criticize each otherʹs theories. Heraclitus, who lived in Ephesus in the second half of the sixth century, was a fierce critic of Pythagoras and Xenophanes. Rejecting Pythagorasʹ world view that emphasized regularity and order, Heraclitus maintained that everything was constantly changing like a river:
you can not step into the same river twice. The world consists not of one or more material substances but of processes governed by a principle Heraclitus calls ʺlogosʺ:
a rational principle or statement that people must understand in order to understand the world in which they live. The world is not what it appears to be. The same idea was at the core of Parmenidesʹ philosophy. He lived in the Greek colony Elea in southern Italy and wrote a poem in which he tried to analyze what it means to say that something is or exists. According to Parmenides, all you can say and think is that ʺbeingʺ exists but that ʺnonbeingʺ does not exist. Change is logically impossible because if something changes it is no longer the same and does not exist. For the rest of antiquity Greek philosophy struggled with these questions: What do we mean when we say that something exists, and what is the relationship between the world as we experience it and what it ʺreallyʺ is?
Some of the speculations of the Presocratics appear to be uncannily consistent with the hypotheses of modern cosmology. As we nowadays search distant planets for signs of life ʺas we know itʺ and delude ourselves that earth is the center of our galaxy when we view the pageant of the stars overhead, we can better understand the anthropocentric and geocentric arrogance of the Greeks and appreciate these early scientists who had no tools for exploration except their own intelligence.