DIRECCIÓN GENERAL DE COMPRAS Y CONTRATACIONES DECLARACIÓN JURADA DE APTITUD PARA CONTRATAR

form more softly and usually also more slowly.

calcando (käl kän′dô) Italian. A direction to speed up the tempo.

call and response A feature of African vocal music that was incorporated by American blacks in their spir- ituals and work songs, and later in blues and gospel music. The soloist sings or chants a line that is repeated or answered by the other singers. In tradi- tional blues, the soloist sings a two-bar line that is echoed by the accompanying instrument, either guitar or harmonica, and this sequence is followed in each of the four-bar units of the overall twelve-bar structure.

calliope A steam driven organ named for the Greek muse of eloquence and invented by Joshua C. Stod- dard in 1845. The original model consisted of a steam boiler, a set of valves, and fifteen graded steam whis- tles. It was played from a pinned cylinder, but a later keyboard model played 37 notes from both keys and barrels. It was very loud and used only outdoors, on river showboats, in circuses, and on fair grounds. After 1900 compressed-air calliopes were constructed, played either from a keyboard or paper roll and obtain- ing as many as 58 notes (but most were smaller).

calmando (käl män′dô) Italian. Also, calmato (käl mä′tô). A direction to perform in a quiet, calm manner.

calmato See CALMANDO.

calore, con (kôn kä lô′re) Italian. Also, caloroso (kä′′lô rô′ sô). A direction to perform with warmth.

caloroso See CALORE,CON.

calypso (kə lip′so¯). A type of popular song sung throughout the Caribbean Islands, particularly in Trinidad, where it originated. The text, using slang, invented words, and ordinary words pronounced so that the accent falls on a usually weak syllable (for example, doll-AR instead of DOLL-ar), generally pokes fun at a real-life event, situation, or person. The music, in 2/4 meter, is highly syncopated and

repetitious, the accompaniment being provided by guitars, drums, and other percussion.

cambiata (käm byä′tä) Italian. 1 Also, changing tone. A shortening of the term nota cambiata, used

for a pair of notes appearing between two chords and dissonant with both. The first note of the cambiata is usually one scale step away from one of the notes in the first chord, and the second note is more than one scale step (usually a third) away from the first note. For example, if chord 1 is G–D–G′–B and chord 2 is G–B–D–G′, the notes F-sharp and A appearing between the two chords constitute a cambiata. Many

authorities distinguish between a pair of dissonant notes moving in the same direction as the chords (either up or down in pitch), and a pair of dissonant notes that move in the opposite direction from the chords (as in the accompanying example: the notes move up, from F#to A, the chords move down, from B to G); they reserve the term cambiata for the former and call the latter échappée or escaped note. 2 A name sometimes used for an accented PASSING TONE. camera (kä′me rä) Italian: “chamber” or “room.” A word used in such terms as musica da camera (“chamber music”) and sonata da camera (“cham- ber sonata,” a baroque form contrasted with the

sonata da chiesa or “church sonata”; see under SONATA).

Camerata (kä′′me rä′tä) Italian. A group of influential Italian intellectuals of the sixteenth cen- tury, including the composers Vicenzo Galilei (father of Galileo), Jacopo PERI, and Giulio CACCINI,

who sought to revive the art of the ancient Greeks, particularly with respect to arousing human emo- tions through dramatic expressiveness, and instead revolutionized the madrigal and invented opera.

camminando (käm me¯ nän′ dô) Italian. A direc- tion to proceed, to push on.

60 campana

campana (käm pä′nä). An Italian word for bell (see BELL, def. 1; CHIMES).

campanella (käm′′pä nel′lä) Italian: “small bell.” A term used both for actual bells and as the title of pieces in which the sound of bells occurs or is imitated. Examples include the last movement of Niccolò Paganini’s Violin Concerto in B minor, called Rondo alla campanella, and a piano work by Franz Liszt based on Paganini’s rondo, called “La Campanella.”

campanelli (käm pä nel′le¯). The Italian word for

GLOCKENSPIEL.

canarie (kAnAre¯′)French. A lively seventeenth- century dance, named for the Canary Islands, which was occasionally used in operas and as a movement in instrumental suites by French, German, and English composers. In 3/8 or 6/8 meter, the canarie is similar to the GIGUEbut has a characteristic rhythm with a dotted note occurring on each strong beat (as shown in the accompanying example).

cancan (English kan′kan′′; French käN käN′)

French: “gossip” or “scandal.” A nineteenth-century dance, generally performed in music halls and nightclubs. The cancan’s music, in 2/4 meter, is based on another dance, the quadrille. The cancan was considered extremely daring because it involved very high kicks by the dancers (all women). The best-known example of the cancan occurs in Offen- bach’s operatta Orphée aux enfers (“Orpheus in the Underworld,” 1858). The musical Can-Can (1953) by Cole Porter recounts how the dance was legitimized in Paris.

cancel The use of a natural sign to counter a previous accidental; see under ACCIDENTALS.

canción (kän thà yôn′, kän syôn′) pl. canciones Spanish. 1 In the fifteenth century, a particular

type of poem that was often set to music. It was sim-

ilar to the contemporary villancico (see VILLANCICO, def. 2) except that it had a more regular rhyme scheme, and the musical meter was always made to conform to the poetic meter. 2 In modern Spanish, a song of any type.

cancionero (kän′′thà yô ner′ ro¯, kän′′ syô ner′ o¯) Spanish. 1 Originally, from the fifteenth century, a

collection of poems without music, whether or not they were intended to be sung. 2 Also, a fifteenth- century book of polyphonic songs (songs with sev- eral voice-parts) with music, similar to the French chansonnier. For example, the Cancionero musical

de Palacio (c. 1500) contains more than 450 songs.

Most are villancicos similar to the Italian frottola, that is, short, for three or four voice-parts, mostly chordal in style, with the main melody in the top voice. In addition, it contains a number of romances, long narrative poems with many stanzas, each of which is sung to the same music. 3 In modern Span- ish, a collection of folk songs.

canon (kan′ən). A musical composition, or sec- tion of a composition, in which a melody in one voice-part is imitated in one or more other voice- parts. Each part (except the first) enters before the preceding part has finished the melody, so that the melody and its repetitions overlap. The most famil- iar kind of canon is the round, such as the children’s songs “Three Blind Mice,” “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” and “Frère Jacques.” This kind of canon is also called a perpetual canon because each part, when it comes to the end of the melody, begins again and repeats the melody, over and over. Other types of canon usually end with a short coda (concluding section) in which all the voice-parts come together.

The canon has been a popular form for hundreds of years. One of the oldest, “Sumer is icumen in,” dates from the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth century canonic imitation was used in the forms called CACCIAand chace, and in the fifteenth century it was widely employed in Masses and motets. In later periods the problems of writing canons contin- ued to fascinate composers. Among the most famous canons are those in Bach’s Goldberg Variations for harpsichord. Interest in the canon revived in the twentieth century. Serial composers such as Schoen-

cantata 61

berg and Webern applied the various canonic treat- ments described below to the twelve-tone series (see

SERIAL MUSICfor a specific example). Some com-

posers, such as Olivier Messiaen, have used rhyth- mic canon, that is, canonic devices applied to the rhythm (time values) instead of the melody (pitches). —strict canon A canon in which, as in a round, the imitation of the melody is exactly the same as the melody itself. —free canon A canon in which the imitation of the melody differs in some way from the original, such as the addition or leav- ing out of sharps and flats. —mixed canon A canon accompanied by one or more independent voice-parts, which do not take part in imitating the melody. —double canon A composition or section in which two independent canons (canons on two different melodies) occur simultaneously.

Other types of canon are distinguished by the way in which the imitation differs from the basic melody. —canon at the unison A canon in which the imitating part begins on the same pitch as the original melody, as it does in a round. If it begins on some pitch higher or lower than the original, it is called a canon at the fifth, canon at the third, etc., depending on the interval between the two beginning pitches (fifth, third, etc.). —canon by inversion Also, canon in contrary motion. A canon in which the imitation consists of the same intervals as the melody but upside down (if the melody were D E F# D, the imitation might be D C B D, that is, moving down in pitch the same distance as the melody moves up, and vice versa). —canon by augmentation A canon in which the imitation repeats the melody in longer note values (for example, half notes instead of quarter notes, quarter notes instead of eighth notes, etc.). —canon by diminution A canon in which the imitation repeats the melody in shorter note values (exactly the opposite of augmentation). —retrograde canon Also, crab canon, canon can-

crizans. A canon in which the imitation repeats the

melody backward, beginning at the end and ending at the beginning (if the melody were D E F#D, the imi- tation would be D F#E D). —canon by retrograde

inversion A canon in which the melody is repeated

both upside down (moving up where it originally moved down in pitch, and vice versa) and backward (beginning at the end and ending at the beginning).

Sometimes two techniques are combined, as for example, in a canon by augmentation and inversion, or in a canon by diminution and inversion.

canso (kAn′so¯) Provençal. A TROUBADOUR love song.

cantabile (kän tä′be¯ le) Italian. A direction to perform in a melodious singing manner.

cantata (kän tä′tə)Italian. Today, a composition for voices (soloists, chorus, or both) and instrumen- tal accompaniment, consisting of several move- ments, among them arias, duets, recitatives, and choruses. The modern cantata is like an ORATORIO

but is generally shorter and not necessarily confined to a religious subject. Indeed the secular (nonreli- gious) cantata as it has existed since the late eigh- teenth century might be described as an opera in concert form, performed without costumes, scenery, or action. Originating in Italy about 1630, and developing alongside the earliest operas, the cantata was an outgrowth of the late madrigal, becoming the most important vocal form of the baroque period (until about 1750). Musically it was similar to early opera, consisting of two or three da capo arias (see under ARIA) connected by

narrative recitatives (speechlike sections); this form is sometimes called “solo cantata” to distinguish it from the modern form.

During the course of the seventeenth century the cantata was taken up by French, German, and English composers, and it began to be used for reli- gious as well as secular texts. In addition, like opera, the cantata gradually became more elaborate, includ- ing sections for chorus and also for full orchestra. Notable composers of contatas during the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries include Alessandro Stradella, Alessandro Scarlatti, and Niccolò Jom- melli of Italy; André Campra and Jean-Philippe Rameau of France; George Frideric Handel of Eng- land; Dietrich Buxtehude, Franz Tunder, Johann Philipp Krieger, Johann Kuhnau, Johann Adolf Hasse, and Georg Philipp Telemann of Germany. The German composers favored the sacred or church can- tata almost exclusively, and in it they often incorpo- rated the Lutheran CHORALE. The cantata, like most

62 canticle

other baroque forms, reached a high point in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, who wrote about 300 cantatas; of these some 215 have survived, most of them religious. Bach’s larger church cantatas usually consist of an opening chorus, often in the form of a fugue, followed by a number of recitatives and arias for the soloists, and ending with a harmo- nized chorale. He used the same scheme for his large secular cantatas.

By the late eighteenth century the cantata had achieved its modern form, that is, the religious can- tata was identical to a small-scale oratorio, and the secular cantata was in effect a short opera presented in concert form. Though never regaining the impor- tance it had in baroque times, the form continued to attract some composers in the periods that followed, among them a considerable number of important twentieth-century composers, such as Bartók (Can-

tata profana, 1930), Webern (op. 29, op. 31), Britten

(Rejoice in the Lamb, 1943; Cantata Misericordium, 1963), Schoenberg (A Survivor from Warsaw, 1947), Hindemith (Apparebit repentina dies, “Suddenly Shall the Day Appear,” 1947), Honegger (Cantate de

Noël, 1953), Vaughan Williams (Epithalamion,

1953), Stravinsky (Canticum sacrum, “Sacred Can- ticle,” 1956), Daniel Pinkham (Christmas Cantata, 1958; Ascension Cantata, 1970), and John Harbi- son, Flight into Egypt (1986).

canticle (kan′ti kəl). A Biblical song of praise other than a psalm. In the Roman Catholic liturgy, canticles are important in certain Offices (see

OFFICE). Like psalms, the canticles are sung to recitation tones, melodic formulas that correspond to the eight church modes, and they are generally preceded and followed by an ANTIPHON. For some

the standard psalm tones are used, while others have their own set of eight tones, and the MAGNIFICAT, the canticle of Vespers, has two sets, one for ordinary days and one for special feast days. In the Anglican service the term is used for the hymns of Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer (see under SERVICE).

cantiga (kän te¯′gä) Spanish. Also, cántiga (kän′te¯ gä) Galician. An Iberian song of the thirteenth cen- tury, similar in form to the French VIRELAIand with a text in Galician. Cantigas are monophonic, that is,

consist of a single voice-part. King Alfonso X of Castile and León (1221–1284), who loved art and composed music himself, had a beautifully illus- trated collection of more than four hundred cantigas made, Cantigas de Santa Maria, dedicated to the Virgin Mary and including many thought to have been composed by him. This is the only surviving collection of its kind written in mensural notation, enabling transcription of the songs into modern meters and note values. Although many cantigas honor the Virgin Mary, others deal with secular sub- jects. Most consist of stanzas with a refrain that is repeated before and after each verse.

cantilena (cän ti la¯′nä) Latin, Italian: “song,” “melody.” 1 In the Middle Ages, a term applied to various kinds of song, ranging from monophonic secular songs to polyphonic sacred music. 2 In the nineteenth century, a lyrical vocal line or an instru- mental passage of a similar nature.

cantillation (kan′′ tə_{la¯′shà en). See under JEWISH}

CHANT.

canto (cän′tô) Italian, Spanish. 1 Singing. 2 A

melody or song. 3 The treble (highest) part of a polyphonic composition. 4 The treble string of an instrument.

cantor (kan′tər). 1 Also, chazzan. In Jewish wor-

ship, the solo singer, who chants the sacred liturgy during Sabbath and holiday services. Also see JEW- ISH CHANT. 2 Also, chanter, precentor. In some Protestant churches, such as the Lutheran Church, the name for the music director; for example, Bach held the post of cantor of the Thomaskirche (Church of St. Thomas) in Leipzig. 3 pl. cantores (kan tôr′a¯z) Latin. In Roman Catholic services, a singer (usually one of two) who performs the solo portions of the chants, the rest being performed by the chorus (called the schola).

cantus (kan′təs) Latin. 1 In the twelfth century,

the first (usually the lowest) voice-part to be written in a composition having more than one part. (The second part to be written was called the DISCANTUS.)

canzonetta 63

sixteenth centuries, the highest voice-part in a com- position having more than one part.

cantus firmus (kan′təs fûr′məs) pl. cantus firmi (kan′təs fûr′me¯) Latin: “fixed song.” An already existing melody that is used as the basis of a compo- sition with other voice-parts. The composition may be for voices (with or without instrumental accom- paniment), for an instrumental ensemble, or for a single instrument (usually organ or harpsichord). The melody used as the cantus firmus may come from Gregorian chant, from a Lutheran chorale (hymn), from a popular song, or from practically any other melodic pattern, including a fragment of a scale. From the thirteenth century through the baroque period (ending about 1750), when COUN- TERPOINTwas basic to nearly all musical composi- tion, the use of a cantus firmus was very common. The organa, clausulae, and motets of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were almost always based on a cantus firmus, taken either from Gregorian chant or from well-known songs of the time. The English composers of the early Renaissance, espe- cially John Dunstable and Leonel Power, are cred- ited with being the first to use a single cantus firmus to unify all the movements of a Mass. During the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries most Masses and organ music came to be constructed in this way. For example, Masses based on the tune of the song

L’Homme armé (“The Armed Man”), shown in the

accompanying example, were written by many of the major composers of the time, including Dufay, Ockeghem, Busnois, Obrecht, Josquin, and Palest- rina. (A more recent use is Peter Maxwell Davies’s

Missa super l’homme armé, 1968, rev. 1971.) By the

seventeenth century, Lutheran chorales were used as cantus firmi by many German composers, particu- larly in organ chorales and in the choruses of can- tatas, oratorios, and Passions. Another favorite can- tus firmus was the hexachord ut re mi fa sol la (the six-note scale C to A). Until about 1650 the cantus firmus was most often found in the tenor (lowest) voice-part and, from the fifteenth century on, it fre- quently was set in long notes of equal value. In organ music of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies these long notes usually appeared in the bass. Occasionally, however, the cantus firmus formed the

descant (highest voice-part), in which case the sim- ple basic melody was ornamented (shorter, decora- tive notes were added).

canzona (kän tsô′nä) pl. canzone (kän tsô′ne) Italian: “song.” 1 A medieval Italian or Provençal poem of several stanzas given a polyphonic setting similar to that of a FROTTOLA(def. 2). 2 A sixteenth-

century Italian composition for voice similar to the madrigal (see MADRIGAL, def. 2) or to the VIL-

LANELLA. 3 In the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-

turies, a lyric poem in stanza form that was often given a polyphonic setting by Italian madrigal and frottola composers of the time. 4 From the seven- teenth century on, any solo song with keyboard accompaniment, the Italian counterpart of the French CHANSON(def. 1) and the German LIED(def. 1). 5 In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, an important instrumental form, written for a keyboard instrument or instrumental ensemble and based on the style of the contemporary French polyphonic chanson (see CHANSON, def. 2). Because it generally included sections in contrasting style, the instrumen- tal canzona is considered a forerunner of the sonata. The most important composers of such canzonas were Giovanni Gabrieli and Girolamo Frescobaldi.

canzonetta (kän tsô net′ tä) pl. canzonette Ital-

ian: “little song.” Also, English canzonet (kan zo net′). 1 From the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, a short secular song either for solo voice or for two to

64 capo

six voices, with or without instrumental accompani- ment. Such pieces were written by Thomas Morley (1597), Claudio Monteverdi (1619), and Franz Joseph Haydn (1794), among others. 2 In the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries, an instrumental piece similar to a short CANZONA(def. 4), such as the organ canzonette of Dietrich Buxtehude. The name has also been loosely used for instrumental pieces of similar nature; for example, the second