PAGO – PLAZOS (*):

composition based on one of these scales is said to be in the key of C major or C minor, the key signatures (see KEY SIGNATURE) for these keys being no sharps or flats, and three flats, respectively. The note one half tone below C is C-flat or B, the note one half tone above C is C-sharp or D-flat (see ENHARMONIC

for an explanation; for the location of these notes on the piano, see KEYBOARD). 2 Two ornamented ver-

sions of the letter C are used as time signatures. One is the C used to indicate common or 4/4 meter. The other has a vertical line drawn through it to indicate either 2/2 or 4/2 meter (see the example below). 3 An ornamented version of the letter C is used to form a family of clefs (see tenor and alto clefs, under CLEF). —C instrument An instrument that sounds at the pitch of the music written for it (in contrast to a trans- posing instrument), especially one of a group such as the trumpets, containing instruments that do not sound at the written pitch.

cabaça (kä bä′sä) Portuguese: “gourd.” A Brazil- ian gourd-rattle (adapted from African versions) used in dance bands. It consists of a gourd covered with a bead-strung netting, and sometimes also filled with pebbles or bits of shell. It is sounded by shaking.

cabaletta (kä bä let′ä) Italian. 1 Originally, in

operas of the eighteenth and early nineteenth cen- turies, a short aria with a persistent rhythm that was repeated with improvised ornamentation. A famous example is Rosina’s aria in Act I of Rossini’s II Bar-

biere di Siviglia (“The Barber of Seville,” 1816),

“Una voce poco fa” (“One voice does little”). 2 In mid- and late nineteenth-century Italian opera, the term was used for the concluding section of a long aria or duet, usually in rapid tempo and with mount- ing excitement, whereas the first section of such a piece, in moderately slow tempo, was called

CAVATINA. An example is the final section of Vio- letta’s aria “Sempre libera” (“Always free”) from Act I of Verdi’s La Traviata (1853).

cabaret (ka bə ra′)French: “little bar.” A kind of nightclub entertainment featuring songs, piano music, and other short presentations. The modern cabaret, addressed to avant-garde artists and writers, dates from 1881, when the Chat Noir opened in Paris. In Germany the first cabaret, the Überbrettl of Berlin (1901), was addressed to the political left as well as the artistic avant-garde. Cabaret songs are most often ballads whose text, whether satirical or erotic or senti- mental, is as important as the music and frequently are half-spoken and half-sung. Notable composers who contributed such music included Erik Satie, Schoenberg, and Kurt Weill. Although in the late 1900s cabaret was often indistinguishable from a

56 Cabezón, Antonio de

theatrical revue, some composers continued to write cabaret songs, notably William Bolcom, who com- posed about 100 of them.

Cabezón (kä be thà ôn′), Antonio de (än tô′ne¯ o¯′′ da¯), 1510–1566. A Spanish composer and organ- ist who is remembered chiefly for his keyboard music, which had enormous influence on the com- posers for organ and harpsichord who followed him. Blind from infancy, Cabezón nevertheless became court organist by the age of sixteen. He first served the Emperor Charles V and then his son, Prince Philip (later Philip II), with whom he traveled all over Europe. More than a decade after Cabezón’s death, his compositions were collected and pub- lished by his son, Hernando, who also succeeded Cabezón at Philip’s court. The collection, entitled

Obras de música para tecla arpa y vihuela (“Musi-

cal Works for Keyboard, Harp and Vihuela”), con- tained both church music—arrangements of hymns, motets, and tientos (preludes)—and diferencias (sets of variations) on popular songs of the time.

caça (kä′sä, kä′thà ä). The Spanish name for

CACCIA.

caccia (kät′chà ä) Italian: “chase.” An early four- teenth-century Italian musical and poetic form. The poem usually dealt with everyday subjects (hunting, fishing, or street scenes) and often a chase (after ani- mals or women). It was set to lively music in the form of a two-part canon, that is, one part repeating the exact melody of the first but following it by a number of measures like the parts of a round. (As implied by the original meaning of the word, the second voice-part actually “chases” the first.) There is usually a third part as well, lower in range and in longer note values; it does not imitate the melody of the upper parts, and it was probably performed by an instrument rather than a voice. Following the main canon, there is generally a shorter concluding sec- tion called a RITORNELLO (def. 1), which may also be in the form of a canon.

A similar kind of composition is the French

chace, dating from a somewhat earlier period and

consisting of a three-part vocal canon at the unison. A Spanish version, possibly an imitation of either

the Italian or the French form, was the caça. Along with the ballata and madrigal, the caccia was one of the most important forms of fourteenth-century sec- ular (nonreligious) music in Italy.

Caccini (kät chà e¯′ne¯), Giulio (joo— ′lyô), c. 1546–1618. An Italian composer remembered chiefly as the composer of one of the earliest operas,

Euridice (1602), and a collection of lovely madri-

gals for solo voice and basso continuo entitled Le

nuove musiche (“The New Music”). Born in Rome,

Caccini went to Florence about 1565 and was a singer at the court there. He became one of the CAM-

ERATA, a group of scholars and artists who wished to revive the classical art of ancient Greece. In his madrigals, Caccini tried to make the music suit both the meaning and the sound (accent, inflection) of the words, creating a kind of “musical speech” that came to be called recitative, although Caccini him- self called it stile rappresentativo (“representational style”). See also MONODY, def. 1.

His daughter, Francesca Caccini (1587–c. 1640), a celebrated singer, lutenist, and harpsi- chordist, wrote music for court entertainments in Florence, as well as songs and duets that exploited the capabilities of the voice. Her most important work was the opera La Liberazione di Ruggiero dal-

l’isola d’Alcina (“Ruggiero’s Liberation from the

island of Alcina”; 1625). However, most of her other works have been lost.

cadence (ka¯d′əns). The series of notes or chords that ends a melody or a section, giving the listener a sense of partial or complete finality. During the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, certain sequences of chords came to be used for cadences, the most important of which are described below. However, these cadential formulas (patterns of cadences) were by no means the ones current in earlier periods, and, toward the end of the nineteenth century, as composers experimented with new har- monic ideas, the traditional formulas began to give way to totally different ones. (See HARMONIC ANALYSIS for explanation of the Roman numerals.)

—authentic cadence Also, final cadence, full

cadence, complete cadence.A cadence that gives a sense of complete finality: the next-to-last chord is

cadenza 57

the DOMINANT(V), the last chord is the TONIC(I). In the perfect authentic cadence, the tonic note is in the soprano. For example, in the key of C major:

—plagal cadence A cadence that also gives a sense of complete finality: the next-to-last chord is the

SUBDOMINANT(IV), the last chord is the tonic (I). In

the perfect plagal cadence, the tonic note is in the soprano. For example, in the key of C major:

—imperfect cadence Also, half cadence. A cadence that gives the feeling that more is to come and there- fore is used in the middle of a section: the next-to- last chord is the tonic (I), and the last is the domi- nant (V) or, occasionally, the subdominant (IV). For example, in the key of C major:

—deceptive cadence Also, false cadence, inter-

rupted cadence. A cadence that the listener expects

to end on the tonic but that surprises one with a dif- ferent chord: the next-to-last chord is the dominant (V), the last some other chord, often the SUBMEDI-

ANT(VI). For example, in the key of C major:

—Phrygian cadence A cadence that gives the impression that more is to follow, and that is often found in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century music

at the end of a movement that is followed by another movement: the next-to-last chord, often the subdom- inant (IV), belongs to the key of the movement, which is major, and the last chord is the dominant (V) of the relative minor key (see KEY, def. 3). For example, in the key of C major:

—masculine cadence Also, masculine ending. Any cadence in which the final chord falls on a strong or accented beat in a measure. —feminine cadence Also, feminine ending. Any cadence in which the final chord falls on an unaccented beat in a measure. (See also HARMONY;LANDINI CADENCE.)

cadenza (kä den′dzä) Italian. A musical passage that gives soloists a chance to show off their techni- cal skill in performing difficult runs, arpeggios, and the like. Cadenzas usually appear toward the end of a movement or composition, or between sections of a movement, and are performed by the soloist alone, the orchestra joining only in the initial and closing chords of the passage. The cadenza is asso- ciated particularly with the solo concerto, where it appears in the first and sometimes also the last

movement. At first (late eighteenth century) the cadenza was inserted just before the closing cadence of the first movement, and the soloist improvised it (made it up) on the spot, usually bas- ing it on the themes of the movement. In the nine- teenth century composers began to write out caden- zas, a custom that has become virtually standard.

fig. 42 p/u from p. 60

fig. 43 p/u from p. 60

fig. 44 p/u from p. 60

fig. 45 p/u from p. 60

fig. 47 p/u from p. 61 fig. 46 p/u from p. 60

58 caesura

For older music the missing cadenzas are usually supplied by editors.

The example on page 57 is from Vaughan Williams’ Oboe Concerto (1944). The indication “Tempo” at the end of the cadenza directs a return to normal tempo, the tempo of the cadenza being free and up to the performer’s discretion.

The practice of including cadenzas in solo con- certos was taken over from eighteenth-century Ital- ian opera, where singers often inserted an impro- vised passage just before the final cadence (end) of an aria in order to display their skill.

caesura (si zooàr′ə). A brief pause in a musical phrase, which is indicated in the score by a comma, apostrophe, or other sign (′ or ′′ or