DISCUSION DE RESULTADOS

There is currently a lack of research investigating music students’ experiences within higher education and during their careers (Juuti, 2012). Currently, research has tended to focus upon performers (Gee, 2010; Juuti, 2012) and conservatoires (Kite, 1990; Musicians’ Benevolent Fund, 2012), despite the fact that the majority of students will study within universities at this level (58% according to Rogers (2002)). Past literature on higher

education more generally has highlighted a number of factors which can potentially impact upon students’ career decisions and experiences including: socio-economic background;

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gender; motivations and aspirations; and academic ability (Vossensteyn, 2005), many of which are beyond an individual’s control (Krumboltz, Mitchell, & Brian, 1976). Other factors which have a less significant impact include the economic situation, the characteristics of the institution, and the programme of study.

Transitions into postgraduate study

Educational transitions refer to the changes ‘navigated by students in their movement within and through formal education’ (Gale & Parker, 2014, p. 1). Within the current thesis the transition observed is that of entry into, and exit from, the master’s degree. This transitional period was also observed within Bowman et al.’s (2005) longitudinal study on the career development of 24 full-time UK master’s students on six courses across two universities. Four semi-structured interviews were conducted with students and their significant others over the period of the master’s degree and up to eighteen months after finishing. The study highlighted a number of themes which represented the types of transitions faced by the students when starting master’s study:

 Staying on to do the same subject at the same university  Moving on to change institution or subject

 Returning to study after a period of unemployment.

Those staying on felt that the master’s degree was a ‘natural extension’ (Bowman et al., 2005, p. 14) of their first degree and showed interest in the subject, whereas those who came back were often dissatisfied with their career and wanted the master’s degree to lead towards more satisfying work.

As individuals transition into a new role they must learn the skills and knowledge needed to succeed, alongside the social norms and expectations of the role. The process of adapting to a novel situation is known as socialization, whereby individuals negotiate identities in order to accommodate their new role (Ibarra, 1999). Socialization processes include developing relationships within the faculty, involvement in learning activities (such as attending lectures or engaging in private study), and becoming integrated into campus life (Weidman, DeAngelo, & Bethea, 2014). Entering a new learning environment, such as a master’s degree, can be difficult due to the need to adapt to new approaches to learning, teaching styles and subjects (Christie et al., 2008). Individuals can find their lack of knowledge surrounding the rules and expectations of the new learning environment

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unsettling, which in turn may result in their academic identities being threatened (Christie et al., 2008). Identities play a large part in the experiences and success of transitions during which time one undergoes ‘intense identity work’ (Juuti & Littleton, 2010, p. 483).

Individuals' identities and attitudes develop as they expand their knowledge and learn new concepts and perspectives (Lairio, Puukari, & Kouvo, 2011). Learning transforms what an individual can do and who they are (Wenger, 1998). Postgraduate study can therefore give rise to social, emotional and intellectual challenges for an individual (Scott et al., 2013). Higher education institutions may hope to encourage a transformation within students by supporting the development of knowledge, skills, attitudes and attributes (Harvey, 2000). However, the extent to which institutions should be involved in helping students to manage their transitions has been debated, particularly for part-time students and postgraduates who are often expected to be autonomous (Scott et al., 2013).

Postgraduate students can face uncertainty and anxiety regarding their ability to succeed, particularly as many are already a third of the way through the course by the time the first summative feedback is received (Slight, 2012). Universities are often less explicit in their expectations and assessment criteria than schools, which can lead to students having difficulty understanding requirements (Clerehan, 2003). In order to ensure individuals are able to smoothly transition into postgraduate study it is important that an institution understands its students’ expectations, whilst also clarifying the expectations of the department (Pitts, 2013). Without feedback, students are less able to evaluate their own levels of achievement as they have nothing (except social comparisons) to use as a basis for judging their abilities at this higher level of study (Burland & Pitts, 2007). In order to

persevere and maintain psychological well-being during this period of uncertainty individuals need proactive coping methods, intrinsic motivation and high levels of self-efficacy. High levels of academic self-efficacy are positively related to the use of effective learning

strategies, persistence and performance for higher education music students (Nielsen, 2004). Students with high levels of self-efficacy and positive academic identities tend to set

‘challenging yet attainable academic goals for themselves, feel less anxious in achievement settings, enjoy their academic work more, persist longer on difficult tasks, and, overall, feel better about themselves as a person and as a student’ (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003, p. 32). Achieving challenging goals leads to a sense of personal satisfaction which is likely to further enhance intrinsic interest in a task (Bandura, 1986). An increase in levels of self-efficacy is also likely to lead to an increase in intrinsic motivation, resulting in individuals being more motivated and persistent in pursuing their goals (Johnson & Johnson, 1985). Increased levels

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of motivation and persistence are likely to lead to improved academic performance, which will in turn increase the individual’s academic self-efficacy in a feedback loop (Perry, DeWine, Duffy, & Vance, 2007). However, if an individual’s self-efficacy is so high that they believe tasks are too easy, they are likely to expend less effort, suggesting there is an optimal level of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982).

Students’ attitudes and experiences are influenced by the institution in which they study as this determines the curriculum, methods of teaching, educational norms and rules regarding academic study (Olsson, 1997). Institutions influence the relative importance and value the students will place upon different aspects of the work (Juuti, 2012) and the students’ constructions of academic and professional identities (Lairio et al., 2011). Papageorgi et al. suggest that students are best able to realise their potential within an institutional environment which they perceive as ‘facilitating academic, professional and personal development and fostering a supportive community of learning, whilst allowing the development and pursuit of personal interests’ (2010, p. 442).

Social factors

The most influential relationships within higher education appear to be:  parents and families

 peers  tutors.

Parents are thought to revert to more of a supportive role and have less of an influence upon students’ decisions to enter higher education than is typical during earlier educational transitions (Burland, 2005). However, studies have shown that many students rely upon parents for their main source of funding due to the lack of official postgraduate funding streams available (Bowman et al., 2005). Therefore, at master’s level parents again become a strong influencing and enabling factor in the decision to continue education.

Students’ families and children impact upon their motivation and the experience of studying. Having children can lead individuals to re-evaluate their own life goals and values, including their approach towards education (Blair et al., 2010). During parenthood

individuals can feel a sense of subordinated identity (Britton & Baxter, 1999), as much of their life becomes structured around caring for the child (Arnett, 2006). Therefore, studying a degree can enable parents to gain a sense of fulfilment through expressing their interests and sustaining a secure sense of self (Burland & Magee, 2014) However, there remains a

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certain expectation within society that women should be the primary caregiver for their children, which can impact women’s career choices and aspirations accordingly (Baker, 2005). Young women who hope to have families in the future are less likely to choose high- demanding and time-consuming careers in order to reduce any future pressure of balancing work and parenting roles (Arnett, 2006). Students can be unprepared to make sacrifices within their family and personal lives to become more strongly involved within the academic communities. Therefore, many who balance studying alongside raising a family are only partially connected to the student community and as such lack a strong student identity or lifestyle (Christie et al., 2008).

During the period of study, peers can provide a sense of community and point of social comparison for the students, impacting upon their self-concept. Peers are used as a point of social comparison. These social comparisons are known to play a large part in students forming their own sense of ‘being a musician’ (Pitts, 2003, p. 14), as individuals compare the extent of their own musical involvement with that of their peers. Roberts (1990) suggests that music students appear to focus their social lives within the music department, resulting in a strong community within music, but isolation from the rest of campus. The social environment within music departments can be tight knit and cliquey, with high numbers of hours spent in musical activities outside of formal class time (Bologna Working Group, 2009). Student peer groups are thought to enhance an individual’s ability to cope with balancing their studies alongside external priorities (Blair et al., 2010) and close- knit departments provide a support network for some students who may be comforted to find others are experiencing similar difficulties (Burland, 2005). However, those who feel they do not belong to the peer groups can face an isolating experience (Dibben, 2006).

Course tutors and supervisors appear to be a particularly influential factor upon students’ experiences, sense of self and self-efficacy within higher education. A personal relationship with tutors can positively impact upon students’ confidence and motivation, by increasing their sense of being valued (Burland, 2005), which in turn enhances their positive academic identity (Lairio et al., 2011). An open dialogue with a tutor can encourage students to recognise their own abilities (Lairio et al., 2011). Through providing feedback the

supervisor validates (or negates) the student’s academic identity and ability to succeed (Christie et al., 2008). Without this feedback students lack a standard against which to judge their abilities and development (Bandura, 1986). Music students tend to have a strong

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emotional attachment to music, which forms a central part of their self-concept, therefore an overly critical approach from a tutor is likely to be taken very personally (Orzel, 2010).

The above discussion highlights the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors upon students’ experiences of higher education; González-Moreno (2012) supports this by

suggesting that students’ experiences and motivations to study are influenced by their personal values and external priorities.

The experiences of music postgraduates

González-Moreno (2012) has conducted the only piece of research of which I am aware which has considered music postgraduates beyond performing and teaching specialisms. 56 graduate students from three different music programmes took part in the study (two onsite programmes which included a range of specialisms, and one distance learning degree specialising in music education). The study explored the reasons behind high levels of attrition on music graduate programmes in Mexico and found a strong correlation between students’ continuation within the degree and the extent to which they valued the

programme. The results revealed a large discrepancy between male and female students, with the former much less likely to complete the first stage of the programme. González- Moreno suggests that this is because the males placed a lower value on graduate

experiences. Those participants who dropped out of their studies did so because they valued their career experiences more highly then their degree. Part-time distance learners differed in their approach to their studies, because they tended to feel the cost of family and job responsibilities more than full-time site-based students. It is unclear, however, whether the distance learners’ perspective of the degree was due to them lacking the campus social support network leading them to feel the burden of their external priorities more strongly than onsite learners; or whether they do in fact have greater external priorities and that this is the reason they chose to study via this method. González-Moreno states that in order to help students complete their graduate programmes, the needs and values of the students, and those portrayed by the institutions need to be matched more closely.

Postgraduate degrees enable students to take control of a process of ongoing academic and professional identity formation as they transition into working life or PhD study (Bowman et al., 2005). Undertaking postgraduate study can be a means of career self-management behaviour (behaviour aimed towards successfully attaining career goals) (Seibert, Kraimer,

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Holtom, & Pierotti, 2013) and a form of career exploration which can be defined as ‘purposive behaviour and cognitions that afford access to information about occupations, jobs, or organisations that was not previously in the stimulus field’ (Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman, 1983, p. 192). Career exploration involves enhancing knowledge about oneself and one’s environment (Taveira & Moreno, 2003). A core outcome of exploration is thought to be developing a secure self-concept and professional identity (Flum & Blustein, 2000) which enables individuals to make more decisive and justified career plans (Phillips, 1982). In order to smoothly transition out of the master’s degree a positive academic or professional identity is important as individuals attempt to negotiate the changes which they face, especially those leaving education.