TEORIA DEL DESGASTE ADHESIVO

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Skaalvik, 2003) in which individuals compare themselves to others (Gecas, 1982). Social comparison is thought to be the most powerful source of information for an individual’s self- concept (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). The ability to learn vicariously by watching and modelling is important for individual growth and development (Gibson, 2004) as it allows individuals to gain a sense of the way in which to approach a task before starting, therefore helping to reduce the ‘costs and pain of faulty effort’ spent on tasks which may not be possible for them (Bandura, 1986, p. 47). The process of modelling is thought to be a powerful way of ‘transmitting values, attitudes and patterns of thoughts and behaviour’ (Bandura, 1986, p. 47). Individuals measure their own success against that of role models in order to learn, be motivated, and define their self-concept (Gibson, 2004).

Role models are individuals perceived to display examples of desired or undesired behaviour (Ivaldi & O’Neill, 2010) who act as motivators by providing an example of how future success may be achieved (and future failure may be avoided). They can inspire an individual to achieve the same level of success through making the desired future-self appear more tangible (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). However, in some cases they may have a

demoralising effect (Ivaldi & O’Neill, 2010). Whether a role model is seen as motivating or demoralising depends on the relevance and attainability of their success. Relevance refers to the extent to which an individual believes themselves to be similar to their role model: the more relevant they are perceived to be, the more they will influence an individual’s motivation (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). Role models are most likely to be motivating when they are similar to an individual (perhaps in terms of age, personality and sex). Attainability refers to how likely the individual is to achieve the same success as their role model; the more attainable the role model’s success is perceived to be, the more motivating it will be for an individual (Ivaldi & O’Neill, 2010). Difficulties can arise when an individual attempts ‘wholesale imitation’, whereby they model their own behaviours and approaches upon that of one individual (Ibarra, 1999, p. 776). This form of modelling can cause difficulties due to the individual acting in ways which do not fit their own natural inclinations or identities (Gibson, 2004). Modelling will be more successful when an individual takes fitting aspects of a number of different role models (Ibarra, 1999).

Further to social comparison, others can provide individuals with a community of practice within which to develop a sense of social identity, confidence and effective coping mechanisms. Communities of practice hold a common interest, share ideas and information, and help each other (Wenger, 1998). A sense of mutual engagement is required, with

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individuals involved in a joint enterprise with a shared repertoire which may include

methods or approaches, words, symbols, routines, and concepts (Wenger, 1998). Identifying with certain social groups or within communities of practice tends to define the relative importance of goals for an individual (Zirkel, 1992). Additionally, feeling a sense of belonging within communities of practice can raise levels of self-esteem, enabling an individual to feel able to cope with situations (Baumeister & Leary, 2000; Burland, 2005) and confident to try new activities (Burland & Pitts, 2007; Pitts, 2003). The sense of striving towards a common purpose and a shared enthusiasm for a subject can lead to friendships forming within these communities (Pitts, 2005) and higher levels of achievement within education (Papageorgi et al., 2010). Struggling individuals can gain confidence and support from others within the group who are experiencing similar difficulties (Christie, Tett, Cree, Hounsell, & McCune, 2008).

Social factors therefore impact upon an individual’s self-concept and motivations in a number of ways relevant to higher education. Individuals who feel they are supported and belong in their institution may be more likely to succeed, especially if they have relevant role model(s) to observe. Social factors are also integral to the career decision making process and can be divided into two groups:

1. Influences which precede career decisions and shape the self-control, motivations and choices made (e.g., role models, support from others, available opportunities) 2. Influences which ‘come into play at critical choice junctures’ (e.g., networks which

lead to a job) (Lent et al., 1994, p. 107).

Social factors are therefore important influences upon long-term development and shorter- term choices during the period of study and the transition into working life. In general, social factors impact upon an individual’s sense of self, behaviour, motivations and choices through a number of processes and as such are an integral part of the experiences of students during career transitions. Individuals do retain a sense of autonomy regarding their career choices as they decide how to view and react to events which could be seen as obstacles or

opportunities (Lent et al., 1994). The next section considers the literature on students’ career transitions and motivations to study in order to provide a context for the current thesis.

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Entering postgraduate study is a major life transition (Blair, Cline, & Wallis, 2010) which remains little researched (Wakeling & Hampden-Thompson, 2013), although some reports have recently been published in the UK (e.g. Department for Business Innovation & Skills, 2013; HEFCE, 2013a, 2013c, 2013d; Scott et al., 2013).

2.5.1 Motivations to study

Past literature on students’ motivations to study in higher education utilises a variety of research methods and varies in the emphasis upon extrinsic or intrinsic motivators. The main motivating factors to study in higher education appear to be:

 Extrinsic: career-related reasons, including working towards a certain career, enhancing employability and developing skills

 Intrinsic: Interest and personal fulfilment  A mixture of the two: interactive motivations

These motivations will now be discussed, focusing on research surrounding postgraduate students.

Extrinsic motivation

Much research highlights the importance of extrinsic motivations for choosing to study, in particular career-related factors. O’Neill (1995) found that students were motivated to study taught postgraduate courses for the following reasons:

1. To initiate a change in career direction 2. To enhance career prospects

3. To prepare for PhD study

4. To concentrate interests towards certain careers 5. Previous lack of success within the job market

O’Neill employed a mixed-methods approach, conducting qualitative focus groups with taught master’s students followed by a larger postal survey within a range of UK higher education institutions. Studies involving music subjects have corroborated points 1, 2, and 4