Diseño curricular para traductores basado en competencias

Whilst the benefits of play outdoors are the focus of campaigns and research, there are disadvantages which must be acknowledged. These can be considered under three general headings, those outwith our control, those directly linked to human activity, and those arising from activities a play park is designed for, i.e. active play. Play outdoors exposes children to all types of weather conditions, however inclement

weather will discourage outdoor play for many children. Heavy, or persistent rainfall, or icy conditions may increase the risk of injury following a slip or a fall, but of greater impact is hot or sunny weather. Good conditions encourage play outdoors especially in

the U K’s changeable climate. Long periods of hot sunny weather are relatively uncommon with The Met Office noting in its report for 2013

‘Recent summers from 2007 to 2012 have been often characterized

by unsettled, cool and at times exceptionally wet conditions.’ (The Met Office, 2017)

Therefore, it is not unsurprising, children opt to play outdoors making the most of rare opportunities. Unlike countries such as Australia, children, and often parents, have limited awareness of hazards linked to hot, dry weather.

29 The first of these is dehydration, play parks are generally located in residential areas, or in out-of-the-way locations, where opportunities to purchase water or other drinks are limited. The UK has not yet established a culture where it is the norm to take a drink bottle when going out to play; unless to a sports activity such as football. Recognising the need to re-hydrate when immersed in a game or activity will not be a child’s

priority. However, dehydration can lead to thirst, light-headedness and fatigue

especially as a child’s ability to regulate body temperature is less developed than adults (Vanos, Herdt & Lochbaum, 2017). Of greater concern are heat exhaustion and

heatstroke (or sunstroke when linked to direct sun exposure) (NHS Choices, 2017), which are often linked to higher physical activity levels. Recognising and treating the symptoms of heat exhaustion (extreme thirst, dizziness, muscle cramps, headache and rapid pulse) prevent its progression to heat or sunstroke which are more serious and may require hospital admission.

The impact of play outdoors in the sun includes exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays. Over- exposure causes sunburn which is linked to the development of melanoma (Hoel et al., 2016). As noted previously, lack of exposure to sunlight may result in reduced levels of vitamin D and rickets, therefore a balance between under and over-exposure is

required. Exposure to UV rays may also affect eyesight. The structure of children’s eyes are as yet unaffected by aging processes, the lens clear and the pupil size being larger than of adults meaning greater levels of UV rays enter the eye. Children are identified by Behar-Cohen et al. (2013) as a population of special concern who. advised of short and long-term impacts of such high exposure to UV rays, including Photokeratitis, photoconjunctivitis and the accelerated aging of eye structures. Similarly, Taylor et al. (1992) propose high levels of exposure may cause ocular damage, which may be related to later development of age-related macular degeneration. Raised levels of pollens occur across the year, for those with asthma or hay fever outdoor play may be a cause of discomfort; severe cases resulting in illness or hospital admission. The impact depends on an individual’s sensitivity to the allergen. Many play parks are situated within grassed areas with trees close by, both of which are known to affect those with asthma and hay fever. The current focus on including natural elements within play areas (Park & Riley, 2015) may increase exposure to different pollen types exacerbating

30 symptoms; but should be balanced against benefits contact with nature can bring. The impact of climate and environment cannot be fully removed but can be mitigated in part through educational programmes encouraging the use of sun-cream, eye wear, regular re-hydration and allergy treatments.

There are areas of concern relating to human activities which can either be removed or their impact reduced. Air pollution linked to car emissions, burning of waste products and industrial emissions contributes to reduced lung function in both asthmatic and non-asthmatic children (WHO, 2005; Ierodiakonou et al. 2016). Gredilla et al. (2017) in their study of Brazilian play parks in Rio Grande do Sul state identified pollutants including lead. The investigation by Shamsudin (2017) evaluated the working memory of primary school children in urban and rural areas of the Malaysian state of Melaka, finding a correlation with raised blood lead levels and reduced working memory. Whilst the UK is working towards achieving European Union air quality standards these have not been achieved since 2010 (Hirtenstein, 2017). National policies aim to reduce the impact of air pollution; in the opinion of this researcher local changes such as

consideration of a play park’s location and the introduction of waiting restrictions in adjacent areas preventing emissions from idling car engines may assist in the reduction of air pollution linked to traffic.

Contamination of soil has also been linked to modern life through the similar

mechanisms. The synthesis of evidence on children’s environmental exposures across

all environments completed by Ferguson, Penney and Solo-Gabriele (2017) noted the presence of pollutants including heavy metals, dioxins, benzene and pyrene. Analysis of paint from play equipment installed in play parks in the south west of the UK identified pollutants including lead even in recently applied paints (Turner et al. 2016). This a higher risk for younger children who may explore their surroundings orally. With higher concentrations of potentially harmful chemicals found in red and yellow paints the frequent use of these bright primary colours in play parks is a concern, especially as Turner et al. (2016) did not identify a correlation between old, flaking paint and increased levels of contaminants.

31 Ferguson, Penney and Solo-Gabriele (2017) and Behar-Cohen et al. (2014) identify children as a sensitive population due to the ongoing development of their bodies. This is a concern, when children spend time playing outdoors. Typical play behaviours include crawling, rolling, floor-sitting and exploration through touch and taste, these actions bringing them into direct contact with soil. Soil and ground contamination through litter and dog fouling are common concerns raised by parents and those responsible for play parks due to the risk of infection. Bylaws were introduced enforcing the removal of dog faeces by dog walkers. This resulting in alterations in accepted behaviour, removal of faeces now common practice by most dog owners (Lowe et al., 2014). Dogs are not the only source of faecal matter found in play parks, other animals including cats, foxes and badgers use open spaces, however control of their behaviour is not possible and removal of their waste falls within a maintenance programme. Whilst general hygiene standards indicate removal of faecal matter is required, specific health issues including Campylobacter infections, roundworms and toxoplasmosis make its presence a greater concern. (Otero et al., 2018). General litter and detritus accumulate without an effective maintenance programme. Broken glass and sharp pieces of metal will cause injury and where there are sandpits or loose surface finishes these hazards may not immediately be apparent. News reports highlight parental concerns over the litter remaining after drug use including needles and sharps (Buckland, 2016; Roberts, 2017; Swift, 2017). These, like air pollution, are related to modern lifestyles and can be controlled; their negative impact minimised reducing risk to play park users of any age.

Risk-taking inevitably leads to failure and play parks are a location where children attempt risky activities. Some actions will be perceived by a child as high-risk, however risks are minimised through the design of equipment and choice of ground surfaces. This, as previously mentioned, enables children to explore and develop their abilities and to learn to assess risk. There are times when risk cannot be minimised; either through the actions of the child, or simply result from unforeseen incident. A child choosing to climb onto the top of a structure attempting a balancing act, or to leap from this height is not using it in the manner it is intended. Therefore, the design of equipment and choice of ground covering cannot always minimise the risk of injury. As

32 Sandseter and Kennair (2011, p259) advised ‘no matter how safe the equipment, the children’s need for excitement seemsto make them use it dangerously’. Indeed, an

activity may have been carried out previously without incident, but another factor may come into play and an injury occur. Play equipment design meets specific standards; but cannot always prevent injury. For example, a life-changing spinal injury occurred to a teenager when two children simultaneously dismounted from a nest swing tipping a third child off (Devlin, 2016). Injuries may result from actions such as leaps from moving equipment; momentum causing a collision; or result from a slip or trip. Alterations in equipment design responding to the introduction of standards have changed the type of injury reported. Previously reported injuries included head injuries; these are less common, however upper arm fractures have increased (Spiegal 2015, Adelson et al. 2017). The reported change may also be related to altered attitudes towards risk

(discussed elsewhere in this literature review) with the removal of equipment viewed as higher risk. Not all injuries linked to play parks are of this severity, scrapes and bruises frequently occur during any active play activity. Indirectly linked to outdoor play is the danger of a road traffic accident. If children are encouraged to develop independent mobility there are risks attached to this; injuries may occur whilst a child travels to or from a play park. Parental oversight is not mandatory in play parks, nor staff or volunteers monitoring activity and behaviour. Whilst learning to negotiate and share away from parental guidance is a positive aspect of outdoor play, this lack of

supervision leaves opportunity for bullying to occur and is one of the concerns cited by both parents and children (Habibie, 2016). Bullying incidents may be ‘low level’ such as

name-calling or preventing a child joining in a game or using equipment, but they also may be more serious leading to injury or theft of property. The impact of these will in

part depend on the child’s robustness. Name-calling may affect a sensitive child far more than a more serious incident for a child who has a higher level of self-confidence. The location of a play park may limit some bullying behaviour if the park appears to be overlooked; or is close to a pathway in regular use.

Whilst we see there are disadvantages linked to play outdoors including that within play parks, these need to be considered alongside and balanced with the benefits this type of play gives. A child who does not experience outdoor play will miss opportunities to

33 grow and develop life-skills, physical abilities and to positively impact their health and well-being. Parents, who have genuine concerns about their child’s safety, therefore may in fact unintentionally impede their child’s ability to develop through restriction of outdoor play.