Diseño gráfico en el contexto artesanal

THE SOURCE

This important Nahuatl document, given this title by its first publisher and translator, was contained in the same manuscript volume, the Códice

Chimalpopoca, that also contained the Anales de Cuauhtitlan and the Breve Relación de los dioses y ritos de la gentilidad of Pedro Ponce (Colección Antigua,

no. 159, Archivo Histórico, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia [Museo Nacional Antropología, Mexico City]). From internal evidence, it dated from 1558. It was almost certainly composed by a Spanish-educated native (or, less likely, a mestizo) whose mother tongue was Nahuatl. From a statement made during the narrative of the Mexica migration, the author would appear to have been of this affiliation, which probably means in this case specifically Tenochca. In any case, the viewpoint throughout the ac- count does seem eminently Tenochca. Velázquez (1945: x) suggested that the author might have been one of the most important native assistants of Sahagún, Martín Jacobita from Tlatelolco, whose people also considered them- selves Mexica—but there is no concrete evidence to support this hypothesis. As in the case of the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, but even more clearly here, this narrative was compiled with a pictorial history, or histories, as its immediate source. Occasionally, the text is nothing more than an explanation of images and symbols that were before the eyes of the writer. In one instance, a rough sketch diagram is intercalated in the text, undoubtedly copied directly from the original pictorial source.

Four complete translations, plus portions of a fifth, of the Nahuatl text of the Leyenda have been published: (1) Paso y Troncoso (1903; Nahuatl in phonetic transcription, and Spanish); (2) Lehmann (1906; Nahuatl, from León y Gama copy, and Latin); (3) Lehmann (1938: 322–388; Nahuatl, from original manuscript, and German; best edition of Nahuatl text); (4) Velázquez (1945: 119–142; Spanish, plus photoreproduction of manuscript); and (5) Garibay (1953–1954: passim; passages only in Spanish). These translations differ considerably in detail, due primarily to the obscurities of the archaic idiom of the text. These linguistic difficulties, however, do not seriously affect the purpose for which the document is utilized in this study.

The great importance of this early source in the original language is evident. Garibay (1953–1954, I: 292–293), who believed that nearly three- quarters of the text was based on poetic fragments of epic character, saw in them “los únicos restos del naufragio de la mina de temas sagrados que se cantaban en los institutos de educación, que sobreviven en su lengua origi- nal y dan la seguridad de hallarse en metro.” Although later than the Historia

de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, to which it bears many similarities, the fact

CENTRAL MEXICO: NAHUATL 19 even greater value. Again, we are provided with a Mexica “panoramic” his- tory of the world, commencing with the four previous Suns and proceeding on to the creation of man, the birth of the fifth Sun, the adventures of Mixcoatl and the four hundred Chichimeca or Mixcohua, the Topiltzin Quet- zalcoatl of Tollan Tale, Huemac, the Toltec downfall, the Mexica migration, the Chapoltepec defeat, the foundation of Mexico Tenochtitlan, and the rise to power of this center, with the “official” list of its principal conquests. THE TOPILTZIN QUETZALCOATL MATERIAL

The tale proper begins, as did that of the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus

pinturas, with the adventures of Mixcoatl and the four hundred Chichimeca

(here called Mixcohua). These latter are engendered in the year 1 Tecpatl by Iztac Chalchihuitlicue (an aspect of the water goddess). Immediately there- after they enter a cave, whereupon the same goddess gives birth to five more— among whom is Mixcoatl—who, after entering and emerging from the water, are nourished by Mexitli, identified here with Tlaltecuhtli, Lord of the Earth. The Sun next presents the four hundred Mixcohua with arrows and shields and instructs them to feed both him and the earth with human hearts and blood. But the latter prefer to amuse themselves by hunting birds, adorning themselves with feathers, pursuing women, and imbibing to in- toxication. The Sun then turns to the other five Mixcohua, giving them arms and ordering them to slay the others who have failed in their duty. Appearing to the four hundred Mixcohua upon a mesquite bush, the latter attempt to capture the five with a net, but they leap out from various hiding places, conquer their errant brothers, and offer them in sacrifice to the Sun. A few survivors plead for mercy and surrender their home, Chicomoztoc, the Seven Caves, to the victorious five.

Then follows a long, somewhat obscure series of incidents involving two two-headed deer who descend to earth and are hunted by two of the Mixcohua, Xiuhnel and Mimich. It ends with the burning of one of them, who has been transformed into the goddess Itzpapalotl. As she burns, she periodically ex- plodes, at which times variously colored sacrificial knives issue forth: blue, white, yellow, red, and black. The white sacrificial knife (iztac tecpatl), wrapped in a mantle, is taken by Mixcoatl, who adores it as a god and carries it on his shoulders when he sets forth to conquer. He advances on a place called Comallan, carrying his Itzpapalotl stone knife war fetish, and the inhabit- ants bring him food as a peace offering. Moving on, he receives the same reception at Tecanman. He continues his march of conquest through Cocyama, Huehuetocan, and Pochtlan. Finally, advancing on Huitznahuac, he encounters a woman named Chimalman, who stands before him, de- fenseless and entirely naked. He hurls a dart at her, which merely passes over her head as she inclines it. He hurls a second, which strikes her side, merely bending itself. He hurls a third, which she catches in her hand. He hurls a

TOPILTZIN QUETZALCOATL 20

fourth, which she takes out from between her legs. Mixcoatl then departs, and the woman flees to a cave. Later he returns, searching in vain for her. Determined to locate her again, he maltreats the other women of Huitzna- huac, who consent to fetch her. Again Chimalman stands before Mixcoatl, defenseless and naked. Again he hurls four darts at her with the same results as before. Then he goes to her and lies with her.

From this union a son is born, Ce Acatl. After four days of anguish, Chimalman delivers her child but dies immediately thereafter. Ce Acatl is brought up by Quilaztli/Cihuacoatl. When of age, he accompanies his father in his conquests, first proving himself at Xiuhuacan, where he takes cap- tives. But Mixcoatl is killed at this point by his brothers the Mixcohua, the uncles of Ce Acatl, who bury their victim in Xaltitlan (or in the sand). Ce Acatl then searches for his father, asking after him. Cozcacuauhtli tells him that he has been killed and points out his burial spot. Ce Acatl disinters his father’s bones and places them in a temple, the Mixcoatepetl (Hill of Mixcoatl). His uncles, the murderers of his father—Apanecatl, Zolton, and Cuilton— not satisfied with Ce Acatl’s sacrifice of a rabbit and a snake to dedicate the temple, demand a jaguar, an eagle, and a wolf. Ce Acatl agrees and goes to the latter three creatures, informing them of his plan, which is not to sacri- fice them but rather his uncles, upon whom they will have the pleasure of feeding. Then he calls to the moles, requesting them to bore a tunnel into the substructure of the temple, through which he enters the shrine above.

The uncles next intend to produce fire with fire sticks, but Ce Acatl creates a fire first. Enraged, the uncles start up after their nephew, with Apanecatl at their head. But Ce Acatl, in readiness, cleaves his uncle’s skull with a smooth vessel (tetzcaltecomatica). He then seizes the other two, who are slowly tortured to death by the animals, their hearts finally being torn out in the usual manner.

At this point there seems to be a gap in the narrative, which should go on to tell of Ce Acatl’s reign in Tollan. This is partly filled by his designation elsewhere (Lehmann 1938: § 1455) as “Topiltzin of Tollan, Quetzalcoatl,” but, most importantly, by the previously mentioned sketch on folio 40, verso. Here, in the upper central portion, a standard conventionalized hill symbol (tepetl) bearing the inscription “Xicococ” (a hill near Tollan, the modern Jicuco) is represented. Below this is a child in a cradle, with the inscriptions “ce acatl” and “topiltzin.” The cradle is connected by lines (resembling link chains) on either side of little blobs that represent, from their accompanying labels, Mixcoatl on the right and Chimalman on the left. Directly below the cradle is a figure, apparently seated on a throne and wearing a feather head- dress, denominated “topiltzin.” To the right is the name sign of Tollan, a nest of reeds. Further to the right and left of the Topiltzin figure are squares with doorways representing houses, two on each side, labeled: “cohuacalli”

CENTRAL MEXICO: NAHUATL 21 (serpent house; upper left); “teocuitlacalli” (gold house; lower left); “chalchiuhcalli” (jade house; upper right); and “xiuhcalli” (turquoise house; lower right). In addition, there are two little squares, one just to the left of the seated Topiltzin, with the label: “52 años ce acatl,” and the other to the right of Mixcoatl, with the inscription: “39 (años) ce tecpatl.”

Most of this little sketch is self-explanatory; it is interesting that it contains some important information not mentioned in the text. It would seem to indicate that Xicococ was Ce Acatl’s birthplace (not clearly specified in the text, although Huitznahuac is probably implied). The four houses, of the serpent, gold, jade, and turquoise, receive no mention in the text. Their significance will become clear when the Anales de Cuauhtitlan and other ac- counts are examined below. The two year dates are explained by the text: 1 Tecpatl is the year of the birth of Mixcoatl and the other Mixcohua, and in one place in the text (Lehmann 1938: § 1492a) it is stated that the former lived thirty-nine years—1 Tecpatl to 1 Acatl, 3 trecenas of the 52-year cycle,

xiuhmolpilli, although the narrative would indicate that Mixcoatl lived longer

than this. The other date is that of both the birth of Ce Acatl and the year in which he abandons Tollan, thus constituting fifty-two years, one full cycle. The text statement (§ 1587a), that he died in the year 4 Tochtli, in Tlapallan, at the age of fifty-six, is not indicated in any way on the sketch.

The narrative completely omits that portion of Ce Acatl’s career during which he rules over Tollan, nor is any reason given for his abandoning it. His “flight” is represented as a series of “conquests,” in order: Ayotlan, Chalco, Xico, Cuixcoc, Zacanco, Tzonmolco, Mazatzonco, Tzapotlan, Acallan, and, finally, Tlapallan. In this last place he becomes sick. After five days be dies, following which he is cremated. Although it is stated that Tollan ”was de- serted,” four names of individuals who succeeded Ce Acatl (in succession?) are given: Huemac, Nequametl, Tlalchicatzin, and Huitzilpopoca (in the original manuscript this passage was almost entirely obscured by a large ink blot, but Lehmann [1938: 373] was able to substantially restore it, aided by the León y Gama copy). A fifth person, Huetzin, is named as ruler of Nonohualco. Although Huemac is named first, if these four really did rule in succession, which is by no means clear, he must be considered to have been the last of the successors of Topiltzin Ce Acatl.

The downfall of Tollan is next described, involving four principal inci- dents: (1) the appearance of a gigantic man-eating demon (tlacnexquimilli), who, killed by the Toltecs, nevertheless causes many deaths; (2) a ball game between Huemac and the rain gods, which, although the former is victori- ous, results in a great four-year drought due to his refusal to accept the prize offered him, the chalchihuitl(s) (young green maize ears) and quetzal feathers (the green leaves sheltering the ear) of the Tlaloque; (3) an incident, similar to that in the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, involving an old

TOPILTZIN QUETZALCOATL 22

woman, at Chapoltepecuitlapilco, and the handing out of sacrificial ban- ners; and (4) the sacrifice of Quetzalxotzin, daughter of Tozcuecuex, leader of the Mexica then resident at Xicococ, to the rain gods at Pantitlan, a whirlpool in the Lake of Mexico. This latter incident ends the drought but does not really aid the Toltecs, who in the year 1 Tecpatl are destroyed and dispersed, Huemac disappearing into the cave, Cincalco.

The account then switches to Mexica history proper, beginning with the migration from Aztlan/Colhuacan.

SUMMARY

(1) Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is the fruit of the union of the con- queror, Mixcoatl (one of the five Mixcohua engendered by an aspect of Chalchiuhtlicue, the water goddess, after the birth of the original four hun- dred), and a woman of Huitznahuac, Chimalman, who is taken by Mixcoatl after two ritualized dart-hurling encounters; (2) Chimalman dies in child- birth (at Xicococ? Huitznahuac?), and Ce Acatl is raised by Quilaztli/ Cihuacoatl (the earth goddess); (3) when of age, he accompanies his father in his conquests, beginning at Xiuhuacan; (4) Mixcoatl is killed (another passage implies that he is killed in the same year of Ce Acatl’s birth) by three other Mixcohua—Apanecatli, Zolton, and Cuilton—who bury his body; (5) Ce Acatl, after a search, disinters his father’s bones and places them in a temple raised in his honor, the Mixcoatepetl; (6) after a complicated inci- dent involving the dedication by Ce Acatl of the temple with the sacrifice of various animals, he avenges his father’s murder by killing his three uncles; (7) although the narrative proper does not mention it, from brief glosses explaining a set of pictorial representations, it is clear that Ce Acatl be- comes ruler of Tollan; (8) Ce Acatl abandons Tollan in the year 1 Acatl, “conquering” a series of places: Ayotlan, Xico/Chalco, Cuixcoc, Zacanco, Tzonmolco, Mazatzonco, Tzapotlan, and Acallan, finally reaching Tlapallan, where he sickens and dies in the year 4 Tochtli, at the age of fifty-six, and is cremated; (9) back in Tollan, although the city (temporarily?) is deserted, other rulers succeed, until the Toltecs are destroyed and dispersed in the year 1 Tecpatl during the rule of Huemac.

COMMENT

This invaluable account is more difficult to follow in some of its details than the three hitherto considered. This seems due to both the obscurity of the archaically formalized Nahuatl text and the general sketchiness of the narra- tive. Its overall similarity to the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas is striking—but with numerous differences in details. Fortunately, unlike this latter source, it carries the narrative through to the end of the Toltec period, although portions of this section, because of its terseness, are among the most difficult to understand. If the Leyenda generally appears to exhibit a

CENTRAL MEXICO: NAHUATL 23 more primitive, “supernaturalistic” quality than those previously examined, this may be at least partly explained by invoking Garibay’s theory that most of the text is based on sacred narrative chants, strung together to form the explanation of a pictorial manuscript.

Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl appears here again as a fundamentally human figure, although the paternal offspring of a divinely engendered personage. It is note- worthy that Tezcatlipoca does not appear in any guise. This may be due to the fact that all of that portion of the tale relating to the former’s downfall and abandonment of Tollan is missing. Neither is TQ specifically apotheosized or transformed upon his death. It is regrettable that this account, otherwise so important, is so brief and incomplete. Its principal value lies in the informa- tion it provides concerning Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl’s origins and early life— which is precisely what is missing in the next account to be considered.