Necesidades Educativas Especiales
3 Diseño
Previous sociable dreams were not separately inviting. They did not concern themselves with a particular, or smaller group. Instead they wanted to cure the whole of society, the lives of everyone, even if a single discontented stratum was to see to this. But now groups appear on their own and peel themselves, with supposed or genuine individuality, out of the whole in order to seek and picture ahead what is specifically best for them. They separate themselves in a longitudinal section which is supposedly to go through all classes; they were linked by organic and national characteristics. And of course by those of oppression or persecution, like young people, the female sex, and especially the Jews. Quite late social utopias thus arose here, alongside Marx so to speak, those of a group emancipation. It operates as the youth movement, as the women's movement, and as Zionism; gulfs lie between them, but also the common element of feeling oppressed in existing society by virtue of a single characteristic. The programme of these groups does not contain revolution but secession, exodus from a manifold ghetto. What they strive for and dream of is of course an influence on society, in a way a new virtue pouring out of youth, womanhood, and national
Judaism. Thus it wants or wanted to escape from mustiness, pressure, and also the atmosphere of lazy scepticism. But the will towards rebuilding the whole of society, that was usual in the great social utopias, is lacking. It is nevertheless remarkable that the programmes confined to groups have a certain specialist status: they know their way around in their groups and undertake utopian gleaning there. Many elements from these specialized utopias were even included in Marxism, which did not happen with any bourgeois fullscale utopia after Marx. These emancipatory plans are certainly not lacking in the shortsightedness which characterizes every mere reformism, but they do lack or did lack deceit. They are thus as different from the bourgeois fullscale utopias of the present as the patch on a dress from the festive garb of finished rags. Utopian remnants, as dished up by capitalist democracy and later by fascism, were sheer deceit, either of an objective kind, with private self
delusion, or of a thoroughly conscious, deliberate kind. One only has to compare with the specialized shortsighted character of the group utopias cited above the totally bogus character of the bourgeois fullscale utopias which have recently sprung up. A future as envisaged by Moeller van den Bruck in his ‘Third Reich’, and Rosenberg in his ‘Myth of the Twentieth Century’ is capitalism plus murder. Ernst Jfinger's imagined unity of workers and soldiers is the same demagogy in its tone of command which Rosenberg demonstrated in blood and flickering flames. What Spengler called ‘Prussianness and socialism’ even around 1920 is a dream of the future which rightly followed the decline of the western world. Even earlier, Kjellén, another utopian reactionary, had declared the ‘ideas of 1914’ to be superior to those of 1789, indeed to be Prussian salvation, a ‘third Rome’ in Brandenburg; thus fullscale utopia had a fascist appearance. There remains the bourgeoisdemocratic future, with H.
G. Wells as its first champion. It certainly does not wear such a warlike deathmask as fascism. Instead it wears moral makeup, and feigns human rights as if the capitalist whore could become a virgin again; Wilson's fate showed what comes out of this.* Freedom from fear cannot be brought by those who themselves represent and produce the cause for fear; freedom as the utopia of western capitalism is chloroform. Thus the smaller or group utopias still stand out as honest exceptions to this, they really wanted to reach the light. Once again a dream of the better life surfaced here, even if by unsuitable means, on soil that had
* Thomas Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), whose ‘Fourteen Points’ were the basis on which the League of Nations was established. They were presented at the Paris peace conference in 1919.
become wholly unsuitable. All the same, a cause for the dream existed and a goal of freedom; there also is or was real movement there and behind it, which is lacking in all bourgeois fullscale utopias after Marx. Escape from minority, from the doll's house, from being a nation of pariahs was what was longed for in these movements;
this is the aim of the special utopia of their programme. The women's movement even contains its own utopian question: that concerning the border of sex, and it entertains the doubt whether such a border exists at all. A piece of Thomas More, a late romantic stirring of liberalism circulates in these movements for the last time. In places, that ‘draught of fresh air’ blows through them which a man like Ibsen wanted to send in all its lively purity through the bourgeois home and community. But the movement ends at the bourgeois barriers erected for it and which tolerate only corruption or abstractness. Life was to resemble nothing but the nobility, nothing but Sunday weather, but they did not see the connection whereby bourgeois life is not like that. For the liberal abstract element to come to an end, the necessary information still lies solely in socialism even for these social dreams. Both things lie in socialism: the end of their movement and the end of the deprivation which caused this movement to begin. The partial utopias of today repeatedly exhibit dreams of emancipation which are a sequel to or an afterripening of the eighteenth century;
although or because the latter, apart from a few points in the programme of the Sturm und Drang, still did not in the least dream of such farreaching emancipation.
Beginning, programme of the youth movement
The child is only to speak when it is spoken to. Even when growing up, it belongs to its parents, has always been more or less kindly enslaved. But around 1900 a will surfaced among young people, on a fairly broad scale, to belong to nobody but themselves. Youth experienced itself as a beginning, wore its own costume, loved travel, cooking in the open air, and was consciously green. It wished for a new life of its own, different from that of adults and better in everything, namely informal and sincere. Family pressure was felt here to the same extent that it decreased. For only those parents no longer sure of themselves, only the home no longer stable itself had children who renounced them and joined their contemporaries to make a fresh beginning. The former bourgeois home as well as the school corresponding to it still at least gave a support which did
not merely coincide with constraint or with empty habit. The fathers still set an example, the teachers by virtue of their strictness towards themselves and their knowledge of their subjects were such that young people trusted them and allowed themselves to be guided by them. It was only possible to become widely disrespectful and to set one's own goals when the old simply knew how to oppress and to lie, and not to guide any more. Above all when new paths seemed to open up, on which the old in their insecurity were unable to find their way. An open field lay ahead, it only seemed to be accessible and indeed visible to the young. First boys and then also girls banded together and emigrated as it were.
Green, that was the approved colour, in order to begin afresh. In order to remain fresh and not to grow wooden, not even later on as a man. Everyone was a scout, the leaders developed out of the circle. The youth movement, in this contrast to the old, is historically new. Only the student fraternity of the Vormärz may come close to it, but it was politically more distinct, i.e. not separated from its older men of freedom, with full beards. The federated form of the ‘free youth movement’ is also old, even very old, it has been placed alongside the elemental community, alongside the socalled organic community, full of customs, sustained and held together by tradition. But the earlier federations, precisely when they contained young people, were intermediate forms, they prepared them for adult life. As is selfevident in a restricted society, and all the more so in the horde, in the primitive tribe. However carefully the original male federations were cut off from older agegroups, unmarried young people by themselves, no path led from here out of the customs of the old, nor was one sought. Also, the bachelors of the male federation were by no means always young men;
the primitive only marries at around the age of forty, so the young people of that time were strongly mixed with men of mature years. The tension is quite different which the modern youth federations with their utopian goals felt between themselves and the older world. From this tension came the enthusiasms in the war directed against the functionally rational society, often intoxicated, streams of love or hatred pouring from the ‘heart’ or ‘soul’. Though this took forms which frequently copied and even helped the society against which they were protesting. After all, this society itself was no longer solidly respectable, dignity loved to make itself up to look young, and even rebellious youth, if confused and rebellious, slowly began to seem quite useful to it. The federated emotional haze in which young people fought before, without seeing their real opponent, could be easily combined with the intoxicated fascist haze. The SA had long been tolerated
and allowed out into the forest before it was called together and put to use, before they were no longer made to ramble but to march. The Wandervogel* is not just a German phenomenon but above all a petitbourgeois one, hence the blurred nature of his dream both in terms of class and content. This kind of fuzziness is different from youthful vagueness, and it is only roughly connected with the striving for candour, with student fraternities, hatred of everyday life, and the longing for elemental, unbroken life. One particular reason for it lay above all in the fact that youth was not merely experienced as a condition but wrongly as a class of its own. Or also: a purely organic longitudinal section was drawn through all classes: that which fell on the side of youth thereby already seemed to have contents of its own, not just its own tempo. SchultzHencke, one of the leaders at the time, thus spoke of an ‘overcoming of parties by youth’. A petitbourgeois sense of harmony, a petitbourgeois deadening thus pretended to be Young German,† Free German,‡ an ‘advance guard’, even a ‘fountain of youth’ or various other things. That is why the youth movement could be so easily captured, there were denominational federations, again in accord with the family, especially when the mother had an earphone hairstyle herself, and the father plucked the lute himself. The longing for a community such as did not exist among adults finally listened to Hitler; for if there were no new contents to counter old people, there were still new burningblowingoverblown words, and to counter those old people who were not yet fired with blood lust there was power. The tension between father and son and the revolt of the son against the oppressive father was replaced by the parents' fear of the member of the Hitler Youth. With him the seemingly changing society enters the home; relationships which had been faltering for a long time through bourgeois insecurity were now completely and most alarmingly overturned. The fact that the FatherEgo, against which the dream of the young was fighting, had merely been replaced by the much harsher one of a murderous state did not occur to them. The young petit bourgeois obviously was not himself brought on to the path that could help him by his youth alone, by the reform of life which was to pass through all classes with a green light. Silt, mud, mustiness, and business were little affected by cooking in the open air in the forest and by the open country that shone beyond it;
* Literally ‘bird of passage’, a member of the Wandervogel youth movement.
† A reference to Das Junge Deutschland, a revolutionary group of writers after 1830.
‡ A reference to Freie Deutsche Jugend, a youth movement in East Germany.
the pot of dreams was filled with even more mud, and finally with his own blood. Although the open country was certainly meant to be liberal originally, with people who did not belong to everyday life as guides to it and no everyday life within it. The Wandervogel had moreover found a certain nest in new schools, likewise longitudinally through the classes, founded for the sons and daughters of liberal families. These were forest schools, Wyneken's free school community, and also a federation of determined school reformers belonged here, represented by Danziger and Kawerau. Education was no longer handed down from above; the cultivation of individual life, and a community spirit were attempted in these emphatic schools of youth. Noble general goals hovered about the picnic and the lamp of evening gatherings, comradeship and even courage were cultivated. As was the love of verse; only the life itself which was afterwards in store remained unrhymed and absurd.
It lay behind a glimmer which lasted no longer than the youth that created it.
Which did not prevent this youth from feeling very rebellious. Especially as the city, seen from the campfire, seemed particularly corrupt and stunted. The word bourgeois acquired a special resonance in the youth movement, Blüher spoke of the atrocities of the bourgeois type. He was regarded primarily as the aged and senile type, his thrifty, economical, calculating, zestless nature was derived from this alone, and likewise the herd of bourgeois conformists: bourgeois society. There was far less talk of exploitation, in fact the other side of the bourgeois, so lovingly elaborated even by Sombart: that of the entrepreneur, the man who takes risks, the conqueror — met with sympathy. The hostility towards the bourgeois was therefore certainly not proletarian or akin to the proletariat; the bourgeois was regarded instead as the counterpart to their own bohemian world, that of knights of chivalry. The society dreamed up by this kind of youth was to be ultimately ardent and strict, anarchistic and classbound at one and the same time. Nevertheless there was and is also a proletarian youth movement, only not an independent one, with a childish land of its own. The young worker feels no more discriminated against by adults as such than the female worker does by men as such. The enemy of both is the employer, their idea of the bourgeois primarily refers to the capitalist, not the nasty bourgeois conformist. Also the tension between father and son is absent or is powerfully diminished in the workingclass family; for whereas the bourgeois sees in his son only the heir, the classconscious proletarian brings up his son to be a comrade. Bourgeois youth thought it was being unbourgeois by carving people into agegroups, and by
contrasting its rosy cheeks with the pallor of adults; whereupon they turned out to have little more in common than a fresh skin and a general air of the March
revolution. Proletarian youth, however, does not create any fictitious contrast to its class, but identifies itself with it. It sees the latter as just as young and futurist as itself, and just as preoccupied with the morning of life, with the life of tomorrow. What it brings to that class is therefore not a goal of its own but an unbroken impetus towards the common proletarian goal. Sorrow however, greatness, noblemindedness, all naive and highvaulted, do not constitute a future on their own. The good of not being cheated of our youth will only be achieved when nobody can be cheated and deprived of their rights any more.
Struggle for the new woman, programme of the women's movement
Woman lies at the bottom, she has long been trained to do so. She is always available, always serviceable, she is the weaker sex and tied to the home. Serving and the obligation to please are related in female life, since pleasing also makes for servitude. The young girl had to be provided for through marriage, so she sat on the perch, and had to wait for a husband. Or she captured men with cunning and herself as the bait, remained a minor even then, without a hunting licence. If her catch was not successful, or if the virgin was too choosy, then she suffered a barren mockery: the woman ranked as an old maid. Sexual life, if it was present, as it mostly was, was not allowed to be shown. A job was regarded as indecent right down to the lower petitbourgeois levels of society. But courageous girls and women drew a different conclusion, dreams of the new woman began. Around 1900, a little before and afterwards, a light flared up here which retains its attraction. The free girl announced her arrival, but so too did the masculine woman, both no longer inclined to be oppressed or even misunderstood. The incipient disintegration of the bourgeois home and the growing need for employees facilitated or justified this path into the open. New love, new life were demanded, a thoroughly selfchosen love, without the official stamp of approval. But what seemed more important, and certainly more strongly affirmative was the access to public life, to a job. The longing was to enjoy life to the full, happy brooding on the nest was no longer the goal. This lay instead outside the limits of the family, outside all the limits which had previously determined woman by hemming her in. The bourgeois girl who did not yet need to earn her
living was different in this connection from poorer and bolder women. The latter had mostly broken with the family completely and bore the consequences; they adopted the masculine course, that of the professional person, entirely. The young ladies who no longer wanted to be so merely got overexcited, but the masculine woman acted differently, the leading woman of the time, the incipient suffragette. The intention of this female protester was, unconsciously and very often consciously, to go her own way, to attain masculine superiority. An undeniable hatred of men was a strange mixture here of hatred by those who were oppressed and of reluctant
living was different in this connection from poorer and bolder women. The latter had mostly broken with the family completely and bore the consequences; they adopted the masculine course, that of the professional person, entirely. The young ladies who no longer wanted to be so merely got overexcited, but the masculine woman acted differently, the leading woman of the time, the incipient suffragette. The intention of this female protester was, unconsciously and very often consciously, to go her own way, to attain masculine superiority. An undeniable hatred of men was a strange mixture here of hatred by those who were oppressed and of reluctant