These tre n d s im ply f i r s t l y t h a t w hile th e la b o u r fo rc e co n tin u ed to expand, th e p ro p o rtio n o f la b o u r needed f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c tio n d e c lin e d . However, i t ap p ears t h a t th e number o f male g e n e ra l and a g r i c u l t u r a l la b o u re rs p e r a l l crop a c re a c t u a l l y in c re a s e d , from 0.385 i n 1901 to 0,391 i n 1911» and 0.415 i n 1921.^ Given th e g e n e ra l tendency f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l o u tp u t to f a l l , th e r e a l income from a g r ic u ltu r e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l la b o u r e r s , o r c u l t i v a t o r s and r e n t i e r s ( o r both groups) must a ls o have d e c lin e d , making i t more n e c e s s a ry f o r them to supplem ent
1) G. B ly n , A g r i c u l t u r a l tr e n d s i n I n d i a . 1891-1947: o u t p u t , a v a i l a b i l i t y . and p r o d u c t i v i t y . ( P h ila d e lp h ia , 1966), pp«94-6, 98-100# 131-2.
2) I I . I I . Is la m , B e n g a l A g r i c u l t u r e 1920-1946. A q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y .
(Cambridge, 1978), p p .37-8, 50* 54* 61, 65, 8 1 -2 , 201. 3) Blyn, A g r ic u ltu r a l tr e n d s , p.2 0 6 .
t h i s income w ith a wage, and more dependent on t h a t wage i f th ey a lre a d y p a r t ic ip a te d i n th e la b o u r m arket. At th e same tim e, th e number o f people seek in g n o n - a g r ic u ltu r a l la b o u r m arket o ccu p atio n s a ls o in c re a s e d , and alm ost c e r t a i n l y a t a f a s t e r r a t e than demand.
Compared to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a g r i c u l tu r e must have been o f d e c lin in g significance a s an a d ju n c t to la b o u r m arket o c c u p a tio n s. As a r e s u l t , th e range o f a l t e r n a t i v e s o th e r th an tra d e unionism which employees fa ced w ith la b o u r m arket problems had , narrowed c o n s id e ra b ly . Even assum ing t h a t workers* needs and e x p e c ta tio n s remained unchanged, a g en e ra l in c re a s e i n th e le v e l o f tra d e unionism was th u s alm ost in e v ita b le a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . However, i t should a ls o be n o ted t h a t , i n s o f a r a s supply to th e n o n -a g ri c u l t u r a l la b o u r m arket in c re a s e d , so co m p etitio n f o r jo b s may a ls o have made c o l le c tiv e a c tio n more d i f f i c u l t to a c h ie v e .
Turning to th e s o c ia l c o n te x t, i t has a lre a d y been in d ic a te d t h a t both th e 1894-6 and 1905-8 phases o f tr a d e unionism co in cid ed w ith a g i t a t i o n over o th e r is s u e s i n which employees took p a r t . While th e se p a r a l l e l s a re w ell e s ta b lis h e d , th e f a c t t h a t th e re was a ls o mass a g i t a t i o n i n Bengal from 1912-16, c o in c id in g w ith th e p u ta tiv e t h i r d
s t r i k e p h ase, has n o t been n o ted b e fo re . B r ie f ly , t h i s phase o f p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t i o n o n ly in v o lv ed Muslims, and began o v er concern f o r developm ents i n Turkey. In 1912-13 t h i s took th e form o f m eetings to c o l l e c t funds f o r th e Turks (under a tta c k f i r s t from Greece and th en from I t a l y )
and to c r i t i c i s e th e B r itis h Government f o r t h e i r a t t i t u d e . S ubsequently, in 1913-16, th e fo cu s o f a t t e n t i o n changed to th e q u e s tio n o f mosque
d em o litio n both in In d ia in .g e n e ra l, and i n C a lc u tta . In th e l a t t e r case t h i s c e n tre d on o p p o sitio n to th e d e m o litio n o f s e v e ra l sm all mosques in th e K idderpur a re a where th e Government wanted to ex ten d
2 th e docks.
N a tio n a lis t involvem ent w ith tra d e unionism d u rin g th e Swadeshi p e rio d began i n September 1905, sim u lta n e o u sly w ith th e in c e p tio n o f th e mass phase o f n a t i o n a l i s t a g i t a t i o n a g a in s t th e p a r t i t i o n o f Bengal. C lerks a t th e Bums* e n g in e e rin g f a c t o r y s tru c k i n p r o t e s t a t
1) B ly n , A g r i c u l t u r a l tr e n d s i n I n d i a , p p .209-10; I s la m , B e n g a l a g r i c u l t u r e . pp. 149-51. W h ile u n d o u b te d ly t r u e , t h i s i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e m o n s tra te b ecause o f th e in a d e q u a c ie s o f w o r k fo r c e s t a t i s t i c s .
2) See p a r t i c u l a r l y C o n fid e n tia l, GB P o l i t i c a l ( P o l i t i c a l ) , P i l e s 290, 1912; 66, 1913; 279, 1913; 155, 1914; 8 6, 1915.
th e in tro d u c tio n o f a tim e-k ee p in g d e v ic e , and o th e r p e tty changes in working c o n d itio n s , and found t h e i r a c tio n h a ile d a s p a r t o f th e Swadeshi movement a t a n a t i o n a l i s t m eetin g . P ledges were made a t th e m eeting, and l a t e r c a r r ie d o u t f o r a t l e a s t a month, to su p p o rt th e s t r i k e r s , and b a r r i s t e r s l i k e A.C. B a n e rji and A.K. Ghosh defended workers a r r e s t - ed d u rin g th e s t r i k e . B a n e rji and Ghosh a ls o defended men a r r e s te d d u rin g th e tram d riv e rs* s t r i k e i n O ctober 1905, and were l a t e r em ulated
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by o th e r s , such a s P.K. Ray Chaudhuri. N a tio n a lis ts a ls o a s s i s te d w ith th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f s e v e ra l s t r i k e s i n 1906, b u t th e on ly la r g e one in which th ey were in v o lv ed was th e E a st In d ia n Railway s tr i k e o f
*
July-S eptem ber 1906. B a n e rji a ls o a tte m p te d , sometimes s u c c e s s fu lly , to m ediate i n s t r i k e s i n f a c t o r i e s and a t a p e t r o l depot i n th e C a lc u tta
4 a r e a .
In c o n tr a s t to t h i s evidence i t must be n oted t h a t most o f th e o th e r s t r i k e s ap p ear to have tak en p la c e w ith o u t any n a t i o n a l i s t in v o lv e ment, w hile th e s t r i k e s o f European and A nglo-Indian railwaymen in
O ctober 1905 and November 1907, and th e l a r g e l y A nglo-Indian t e le g r a p h is ts i n A p ril 1908, in v o lv ed employees who were g e n e r a lly h o s t i l e to th e
n a t i o n a l i s t movement. The E a st In d ia n Railway guards who s tru c k in O ctober 1905 s p e c i f i c a l l y d iscla im e d any co n n ectio n bet'ween t h e i r
5 a c tio n s , and th e n a t i o n a l i s t movement.
In th e 1890s Muslim le a d e r s i n C a lc u tta had l e n t some sup p o rt to th e f a c to r y workers* a g i t a t i o n o v er h o lid a y demands, and f o r cow^
1) C o n fid e n tia l, GB P o l i t i c a l , P i l e 43 (d) , 1905; P ile 114, 1906;
. S ark ar, Swadeshi movement i n Bengal, p p .189, 200-202.
2) P.K. Ray C h a u d h u ri t o A.C. B a n e r j i , 25 M a rch 1906, i n A.C. B a n e r ji
P a p e rs , P i l e 115, S e r ia l 300 ( s e e k in g a d v ic e i n c o n n e c tio n w it h a s t r i k e i n a j u t e f a c t o r y ) ; S a r k a r , i b i d . . p p .199-203.
3) C o n fid e n tia l, Gol Home ( p u b lic ) , O ctober 1906, B 13 (a c tu a l f i l e ) ; C o n fid e n tia l, Gol Home ( P o l i t i c a l ) , F ebruary 1907, A 138; A.C. B an e rji P a p e rs, P i l e 7 , S e r ia ls 24, 26, 27; S a rk a r, i b i d . . pp.1 9 8 -9 . 214-22. N a t io n a lis ts were a ls o in v o lv ed in th e March 1908 K idderpur dock s t r i k e - C o n fid e n tia l, Gol Home ( p o l i t i c a l ) , A p ril 1911, D eposit No.7;
A.C. B a n e r ji P a p e rs , P i l e 150 ( ’ B io g r a p h ic a l n o te a b o u t A.C. B a n e r j i * ) ; S a r k a r , i b i d . , p p .238-9. 4) A.C. B a n e r ji P a p e rs , P i l e 94, S e r ia l 258 ( fr o m Benode B e h a ry H o o k e r j i ) ; P i l e 130, S e r ia l 334 (fr o m James Sim e, B e lv e d e re j u t e m i l l ) ; P i l e 145, S e r ia l 378 (a n o n , r e th e B e lv e d e re j u t e m i l l ) ; S a r k a r , i b i d . . p p . 234-5, 239-40.
5) C o n fid e n tia l, GB P o l i t i c a l , P ile 114, 1906. Also - Gol Home ( p u b lic ) , November 1907, B 254-68 ( a c tu a l f i l e ) ; R eport o f th e Committee o f th e Bengal Chamber o f Commerce f o r th e y e a r 1907. Vol. I* (C a lc u tta . 1908).
P .80; i b i d . . V o l.I I . (C a lc u tta . 1909). p p.411-7: S arkar, i b i d . ,
1
s a c r i f i c e r i g h t s , b u t i t does n o t seem t h a t th e o rg a n iz e rs o f su p p o rt f o r Turkey, and a g a in s t mosque d e m o litio n , a s s i s t e d f a c to r y o r o th e r workers* s t r i k e s i n 1912-16. In d eed , alth o u g h th e p o lic e were lo o k in g f o r such c o n n e c tio n s, th ey could only d isc o v e r t h a t an i t i n e r a n t Muslim a s c e t i c was c o l l e c t i n g funds f o r Turkey from f a c to r y workers* m eetings i n the Hugli and 24 Parganas d i s t r i c t s , which he passed on to th e C a lc u tta
2
le a d e rs* However, th e absence o f a d i r e c t l i n k between f a c to r y w orkers and th e le a d e r s of th e Muslim a g i t a t i o n i n 1912-16 does n o t n e c e s s a r ily mean t h a t th e l a t t e r movement had no in flu e n c e on tra d e unionism ,
I-Iass p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s can be seen to have in flu e n c e d tr a d e unionism ‘ in d ire c tly * by c r e a tin g a s o c ia l atm osphere conducive to
c o l l e c t i v e a g i t a t i o n . This i s d i f f i c u l t to dem onstrate e m p iric a lly s in c e l i t t l e i s known about employees* c o n sc io u sn e ss, and how th e Swadeshi and T urkish su p p o rt movements m ight have in flu e n c e d i t . I n s o f a r a s th e Swadeshi movement in v o lv ed in te n s e p u b lic debate o v er th e whole q u e s tio n o f s u ita b le c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n to co n fro n t unp o p u lar d e c is io n s on th e p a r t o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s , and in volved mass m eetin g s, i t must s u re ly have provided some stim u lu s to tra d e unionism . As a newspaper e d i t o r i a l commented i n J u ly 1906, r e f e r r i n g to bo th th e n a t i o n a l i s t and tra d e union movements, ’’O rg an izatio n has become th e watchword o f th e h o u r” . S im ila rly , a r e p o r t on th e Namasudra so c ia l u p l i f t movement, w r itte n in 1909* n o ted t h a t alth o u g h t h i s movement had e x is te d f o r some e ig h t y e a rs o r more, i t o n ly spread r a p id lj’’ when th e Swadeshi t a c t i c o f b o y co tt p rovided an example o f how to p ro c e e d ,^ Since th e Namasudras do n o t ap p ear to have p a r t ic ip a te d i n th e Swadeshi movement, and may even have opposed i t , t h i s in d ic a te s how n a t i o n a l i s t a c t i v i t y could even ‘ in sp ire * n o n - p a r tic ip a tin g groups to tak e to c o l l e c t iv e a c tio n on t h e i r own b e h a lf . By e x te n s io n , th e European and A nglo- In d ia n railwaymen could a ls o have been moved to extend t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s from p e t i t i o n s to s t r i k i n g a s a consequence o f th e g e n e ra l s o c ia l atm osphere c re a te d p r im a r ily by th e Swadeshi movement. The
1) C hakrabarty, ’’Communal r i o t s and la b o u r” , p p .154-68#
2; C o n fid e n tia l, GB P o l i t i c a l ( P o l i t i c a l ) , P i l e 66 (1-3)» and KWs, 1913* 3) Bengalee. 31/7/1906, quoted in Saha, H is to ry o f th e working c la s s
movement, p . 22. P o r th e Swadeshi d e b a te s , see S ark ar, Swadeshi move ment in Bengal, passim .
4) C o n fid e n tia l, Government o f E a ste rn Bengal & Assam, P o l i t i c a l D epart ment, P ile 404* 1909# The Namasudras were m ainly i n c o n f l i c t w ith th e ’m iddle class* upper c a s te Hindus who dominated th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e Swadeshi movement. See a ls o ; Preedom Movement P a p e rs, P i l e 66, ”An account o f th e Swadeshi movement (1903-7)"•
191 2-16 Muslim a g i t a t i o n , by in v o lv in g w orkers in m eetings and d e m o n stra tio n s, could have had a s im ila r in flu e n c e on th e f a c to r y w orkers, th u s c o n tr ib u tin g to th e a p p a re n t in c re a s e in a c tiv ity *
Assuming t h a t th e c o lla p s e o f p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t i o n d id remove a s i g n i f i c a n t stim u lu s to tra d e unionism , a p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n f o r th e f a l l i n s t r i k e a c t i v i t y in 1907-8* and 1915-16, b efo re th e c o s t o f l i v i n g in d ex showed any d e c lin e , emerges* The Swadeshi movement* s im petus d e c lin e d from th e m iddle o f 1907* and throughout 1908, due to a com bination o f i n t e r n a l d is s e n tio n , and re p re s s io n - r e s t r i c t i o n s were imposed on newspapers and p u b lic m eetin g s, and le a d in g a c t i v i s t s were a r r e s t e d and even deported* The removal o f any stim u lu s to m ilita n c y , to g e th e r w ith th e p h y s ic a l r e s t r i c t i o n s on mass p u b lic a c t i v i t y , could th u s have combined to b r in g about a f a l l i n th e le v e l o f tra d e unionism , d e s p ite th e c o n tin u in g r i s e i n p r ic e s . Such a d e c lin e could o f course a ls o have ta k e n th e form o f abandonment o f un ions and s t r i k e s , and a r e tu r n to l e s s c o n tr o v e rs ia l m ethods, l i k e p e t i t i o n i n g . The 1912-16 Muslim a g i t a t i o n a ls o took on a reduced form a f t e r th e d e c la r a tio n o f th e F i r s t World lifer, becoming a more
lo c a l i s e d movement. P o l i t i c a l and o th e r l e a d e r s , in c lu d in g tra d e u n io n is ts l i k e Barton o f th e ITA were a ls o in te r n e d d u rin g th e Vfer, th u s a g a in
2