1.3. El desplazamiento y la fragmentación en los poemas de Charlotte Mew
1.3.5. La división entre la persona pública y la persona privada
While the provision of infrastructure can involve the delivery of a multitude of project
variants by a single client organisation across multiple project needs, it becomes
important to further understand the relationship between ICOs and their relevant
delivering organisations (or contractors) via the delivery system selected. This process is
herein referred to as the procurement system (McDermott, 1999), which, in various
guises, reflects the particular set of agreements and circumstances that apportion
has drawn such negative press as the most basic yet widely used of the procurement
systems can be characterised by Figure 2H.
Figure 2H ‐ The traditional procurement system and its varying needs
(Source ‐ Adapted from Cox and Townsend, 1998)
Note: 'C' represents a potential point of conflict and additional cost; and, this structure is
re‐assembled on a project by project basis.
Typically one off in nature, the above structure is disassembled at project closedown and
reassembled for each new project. More broadly, Love et al. (1998) define a
procurement system as an organisational system that designates specific responsibilities
and authorities to people and organisations, and thus defines the array of elements
involved in a project. A view shared by Konchar (1997), who sees that project delivery
(procurement) systems look at delivery in a systematic way, defining roles, relationships
continuum from Design‐Bid‐Build to Alliancing. The essence of the procurement system
is to set the boundaries between client and market, whilst also defining the process
through which projects will come to fruition.
In essence, while the Delivery System dictates the nature of a package of works and
responds to packaging and aggregation strategies, the procurement system dictates the
terms for projects within that system. Consequently, a strategic alliance relationship will
likely employ relational / alliance forms of procurement, while transactional / traditional
forms will focus on separation in procurement. Thus, while delivery systems dictate the
differentiation between works and market approach, procurement systems dictate the
specifics of how this will be achieved for each project. For example, a delivery system
may dictate the use of a framework for maintenance works in a particular geographic
area to aggregate market value on behalf of 4 local authority clients based on the nature
of the works. The procurement system to coincide with this (the process of realisation)
may then be D&B for each project as a call off, with some having target cost approaches
to contract, the others lump sums etc. The categorisation of procurement approaches
include, but are not limited to, the following (see Cox and Townsend, 1998; and
Masterman, 2002):
Separated (traditional – master & servant relationships) ‐ Its key characteristic is
the separation of the design and construction process and the lack of integration
across these boundaries.
Integrated (design & construct – risk allocation models) ‐ The design and build
approach is characterised by the single point responsibility offered to the client by
the contractor and the opportunity for overlapping the design and construction
phases.
Packaged (management – separate packages including turnkey and DBFO) ‐ The
key principle in this form is the separation of the managing and operating systems.
The project organisation is overarched by a managing system. This managing
system is generally provided by a management contractor or a construction
Relational (collaborative – partnering and alliancing) ‐ Key issues here focus around
the sharing of common goals, while the nature of the process can take numerous
forms ranging from partnering / alliancing to Public Private Partnership (PPP) and
joint venture (JV) (Yueng et al., 2012).
What is important to note here is the interdependence between the construction
process and its corresponding organisational structure in terms of responsibility
allocation (Rowlinson, 1999; Akintoye and Main, 2012). Adapted from the ICE’s ‘Creating
value in engineering’ (1996), Figure 2I highlights the dichotomy between control and
release with regard to stakeholder involvement and cost control across the delivery
cycle. The idea being here, that traditional methods do not allow for contractor input
into cost / scope reduction as they do not enter the process early enough (for example).
Figure 2I ‐ Control and release against time and cost
(Source ‐ Adapted from ICE, 1996)
A range of procurement system options consequently exist under the aforementioned
categories, each with a differing approach to finance and the provision of various project
phases by the marketplace. Pakkala (2002) asserts that such systems include design‐bid‐
build (DBB), design‐build (D&B), design‐build‐operate‐maintain (DBOM), design‐build‐
finance‐operate (DBFO), build‐own‐operate‐transfer (BOOT), construction management
(CM), program management (PM) and pure operations and maintenance (POM).
In contrast, partnering organisations, or more aptly, relational contracting organisations,
must set out clear (common) goals for their operation and understand the extent to
which they are to be relational, and thus understand the relative objectives. Relational
and collaborative contracting (RCC) is thus focused on win‐win scenarios for the parties
and their operating out of mutual benefit opposed to the creation of adversarial
scenarios (Alsagoff and McDermott, 1994; Walker and Hampson, 2003; Yueng et al.,
2012).
With foundations in the work of Macneil (1978) who categorised contracts as either
transactional or relational, Joskow (1987) discussed the importance of the relationship
between contract length and ex‐ante terms & conditions based on relationship‐specific
investments. This focus on relationships, building on Williamson's Transactional Cost
Economics (1985), puts an emphasis on collaborative working to reap mutual benefits
between contracting parties. RCC can thus be said to be a mechanism to remove
transaction costs, the economic equivalent of friction in physical systems (Williamson,
1985). As serial contracting methods (alliancing and strategic partnering etc.) form long
term multidisciplinary teams, there is an importance placed around innovation and
passing knowledge from project to project (Pryke and Smith, 2012). Such approaches
may be said to be more strategic and effective, seeking to maximise each participant’s
resources based on trust. They also seek to maximise competition and streamline work
definition, enhance the incorporation of the project organisation with commercial terms
and develop the ability to formulate a vision that deals with an (1) increase in customer
sophistications, (2) the development of new technologies, (3) the need to reduce the
time to market for new products, and (4) the need to optimise resource management