Educación Inclusiva

The third transgression refers to the oppression of the poor: haššō’ăp îm ‛al-‛ăp ar-’ereṣ

bәrō’š dallîm “They trample upon the dust of the earth on the head of the poor”. The text poses problems with regard to the wording and meaning. The first textual problem in this verse is with regard to the phrase ‛al-‛ăp ar-’ereṣ “upon the dust of the earth”. It does not fit the poetic meter of the verse and makes the meaning vague. Therefore, this phrase is to be considered as an addition as the BHS too suggests. Leaving it out, the text reads smoothly and makes good sense: “they trample on the head of the poor”.94

The presence of the preposition

bêṯ in bәrō’š dallîm is to be explained as expressing a hostile crushing against a high object, here the head.95 The severity of the oppression of the poor is metaphorically expressed as trampling on their heads, showing the utter disregard for their rights.

At first, it is not clear whether the verb šō’ăp îm comes from the root šwp “to tread”, “to trample” or “to crush” or from the root š’p “to pant after”. Depending on the root, two varying interpretations are possible:

i. If šō’ăp îm is derived from the root šwp as LXX translates it, with τὰ πατοῦντα from the verb πατέω meaning “to trample”, the meaning in this context could be to ignore the rights of the poor or to deliberately withhold what is legitimately their due,96 but if the root is derived

91 _{Arguing with R. Meynet / P. Bovati, Il libro del profeta Amos, p. 84.} 92 _{Arguing with H.W. Wolff, Dodekapropheton 2, p. 201.}

93 _{My translation from “zutagetretende Erbarmungslosigkeit und Verachtung der Menschenwürde”.W.}

Rudolph, Joel-Amos-Obadja-Jona, KAT XIII/2, Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1971, p. 141.

94 _{The addition ‛al-‛ăp ar-’ereṣ was probably meant to enhance the gravity of the accusation and to give}

the impression that the oppression is so severe that the poor are thoroughly crushed.

95

Wolff has also pointed out that bêṯ preposition can mean “ein feindliches “gegen” (a hostile “against”) when associated with a high object as in bәrō’šeḵā in 1 Kgs 2,44.

96 _{LXX has added an extra verb resembling šûp in meaning, ἐκονδύλιζον “they stroke” or “they smote”,}

and has translated the verse as τὰ πατοῦντα ἐπὶ τὸν χοῦν τῆς γῆς καὶ ἐκονδύλιζον εἰς κεφαλὰς πτωχῶν “those who trample on the dust of the earth, and smote upon the heads of the poor” (v. 7a). This is definitely an attempt to retain both the roots and it offers us little help to understand the MT. The difficulty of the LXX translator to comprehend this root is evident also from the fact that he uses an entirely different word, ἐκτρίβω, meaning “to utterly destroy” in the repetition of this phrase in Amos 8,4. Therefore, the solution is to be sought elsewhere.

from the root šwp, the participle might have read šōp îm and not šō’ăp îm97. The root šwp occurs in Gen 3,15 (2x): yәšûp ḵā rō’š wә’attā(h) tәšûp ennû ‛āqēḇ “he will strike your head, and you will strike his heel…”

ii. If the participle form is derived from the root š’p the phrase would mean “They pant after the dust of the earth which is on the head of the poor” (NKJV). The “dust of the earth” may then metaphorically mean the little land that the poor possess. The reference then could be to the greed of the rich to take possession of the land of the poor and to oppress them.98 BDB understood this rendering to be a “hyperbole for extreme avarice” accordingly.99 We find this root used with the meaning “to pant after” also in Jer 2,24 and 14,6.

However the second possibility suggested above encounters another hurdle because

š’p is used always with a direct object as we see in Jer 2,24; 14,6 et al.100

Moreover, in a similar phrase in Amos 8,4, the meaning “to trample” suits the context well: šim‛û-zō’ṯ haššō’ăp îm ’eḇyôn “Hear this, you who trample on the needy”. The incongruity of the word being pointed as šō’ăp îm and not šōp îm can be explained only as a scribal error. Here I would agree with Wolff who suggests that the Masoretes have probably wrongly pointed the archaic root šwp with the vowel points of the often used root š’p.101 This solution also explains the presence of the consonant ’ālep in haššō’ăp îm.

The victims are referred to as dallîm “poor”. Dal is the most commonly used word for “poor” in the biblical wisdom literature. The Hebrew root dl is found in most Semitic languages, the underlying meaning is to be poor, lowly, miserable etc.102 The word dal occurs 48x in the Hebrew Bible, predominantly in the poetic texts (39x).103 The prophet Jeremiah uses the word dallîm with a negative connotation in which it represents people who refused to

97 _{Wellhausen holds this view. Cf. J. Wellhausen, Die kleinen Propheten, p. 72. Here, however, if the}

root is šûp , then the presence of the letter Aleph in šō’ăp îm needs to be explained. S.M. Paul explains this phenomenon: “The א in the verb does not represent a rare mater lectionis … but preserves a variant writing of the participial form of ו´´ע verbs. From this metaplastic forms, new verbs were created that preserved the א. Compare the roots םאק, Hos 10:14 alongside the common םוק; …. Here, then the א is not to be deleted and should be vocalized םיִפ ֲאֹּׁשַה.” S.M. Paul, Amos, p. 79. Against Andersen and Freedman, who consider the LXX variant as an interpretation of the MT, though their argument is correct about the second part of the statement: “And they strike [with the fist] the heads of the poor.” Here LXX has an additional verb. Cf. F.I. Andersen / D.N. Freedman, Amos, pp. 314-15.

98 _{J.H. Hayes also interprets the text in this line and describes the “they” here as “the upper class}

citizens” or possibly even the “government officials”. J.H. Hayes, Amos, p. 110. Cf. also M.A. Sweeney, The Twelve Prophets I, p. 215.

99 _{BDB, p. 983.} 100

Arguing with H.W. Wolff, Dodekapropheton 2, p. 163.

101

Cf. H.W. Wolff, Dodekapropheton 2, p. 163.

102 _{Hebrew: dl, dll = poor, needy; Akkadian: dullu(m) = trouble, toil, misery; Neo-Babylonian: dullu =}

work, duty; Ugaritic: dl, dll = poor, needy; Arabic: dalla = to be small, despised, to be humble. In Akkadian, this root has a very old history and it referred to “trouble, oppression which penetrates to the heart and causes grief”. Cf. H.J. Fabry, “ל ַד dal”, pp. 208-11.

103 _{The predominant occurrences are: 15x in Proverbs, 6x in Job, 5x in Psalms, 5x in Isaiah and 4x in}

take correction, who “made their faces hard” and did not repent (cf. Jer 5,1-4), but here too the prophet readily excuses their shortcomings because they did not have the opportunity to know the way (dereḵ) and the justice (mišpāṭ) of the Lord (cf. v. 4), unlike the noble people (haggәḏōlîm), who do the same in spite of their knowing the way and justice of God (cf. v. 5).104

The protection of the poor (dal) was a value in Israelite society and it is well attested in the wisdom literature. Here it is considered as a social responsibility (cf. Ps 41,2; 82,3.4; Prov 14,31; 21,13; 22,16.22 et al), above all, the privileged duty of the king (cf. Ps 72,13). The covenantal traditions lay down instructions not to be partial against the poor in a lawsuit (cf. Exod 23,3). The exhortation not to be partial against the poor is found again in Lev 19,15:

lō’-ṯa‛ăśû ‛āwel bammišpāṭ lō’-ṯiśśā’ p әnê-ḏāl “You shall do no injustice in court, You shall not be partial to the poor …” (ESV) Amos observes the neglect of this value in his society and does not mince his words to condemn it.