El efectivo y equivalentes de efectivo

backgrounds conducted by Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco and Todorova (2008) attempted to build a data-based theoretical model of major factors affecting the academic performance of first generation ELLs. The LISA study establishes correlations between two outcomes at a time to build up links between variables. Once these initial relations between variables have been established, the researchers apply regression analysis, merging multiple variables, and ranking their association with a single distinct fundamental outcome. For example, grade point average (GPA) has been used to measure scholastic attainment. Having the knowledge of variables that influence the academic achievement of the recently arrived immigrant

adolescents facilitated the development of a theory of the influences on the academic achievement of the first generation ELLs. Taking into consideration that the second generation ELLs share with new arrivals many similarities in regards to factors that affect their academic performance, the regression model developed by Suárez- Orozco, Suárez-Orozco and Todorova (2008) largely applies to both generations of ELLs.

53 This conceptual data-based theoretical regression model of major factors affecting academic performance of recently arrived immigrant adolescents is applicable for upper elementary, middle, and high school ELLs. It points out influences on academic achievement from student-centered and school-centered perspectives that could be widely applied to today’s educational institutions. In essence, this conceptual data-based theoretical regression model can serve as a theoretical basis for the comparison between first and second generation factors, as second generation ELLs comprise the vast majority of ELLs in public schools, and both generations have to face a multitude of the same challenges related to their academic success in the United States.

Student-Centered Factors

Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco and Todorova (2008) ranked the English language proficiency (influenced by mother’s education and years in the United States) followed by behavioral engagement (influenced by school problems and violence, relational engagement, cognitive engagement and gender) as the most robust student-centered explanatory variables that affect academic performance of new arrivals as measured by GPA or achievement tests. In addition, LISA places the family structure variable third (referring to whether the family has two parents, one parent or another caregiver) closing the chain of student-centered variables that affect academic performance of new arrivals.

English Language Proficiency (influenced by mother’s education and years in the United States). Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco and Todorova (2008) affirmed

54 that the “English skills have triple the predictive value of all the other student

variables combined for the achievement score” (p. 53). Nevertheless, various research findings also indicate that the new arrivals fall short behind the second generation of ELLs in sophistication of their English skills. Initially, English language skills of the first generation ELLs are generally limited to conversational English, while their academic English skills are lacking behind the second generation ELLs who were born in the United States hence, they are native English speakers. This phenomenon is largely due to the fact that newcomers have to face many academic, social and cultural challenges related to their acculturation process to a new country that hinders their ability to master academic English.

First-generationELLs clearly have strong motivation for learning English. LISA reported that 56% of new arrivals were identified as “not knowing English” as a greater obstacle than discrimination, few resources or not being documented (Suárez- Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 149). However, research suggested that various English language support programs that would address new arrivals’ learning needs vary widely in quality. Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco and Todorova (2008, p. 163) explained that

By and large, in most cases, there was not clear strategy to place students into a progressive program of instruction that would (1) identify the student’s incoming literacy and academic skills, (2) provide high-quality English instruction, (3) continue to provide instruction in academic subject areas such math, science, and social studies in the students’ native languages, so that they

55 would not fall further behind their English-speaking peers, and (4) offer transition academic supports, e.g., tutoring, continued language instruction, homework help, and writing assistance, as the language learners integrated into mainstream programs.

Learning English is a lengthy and very difficult task. According to Cummins (1979), it takes an average of five to ten years of systematic high quality training to develop cognitive academic English language skills. However, in high school settings, ELLs generally do not have enough time to adequately master their English skills, and their English skills are primarily limited to social and conversational level, rather than to academic English. This is the similarity that equally affects new arrivals as well as second generation ELLs. Therefore, both generations of ELLs are

constantly being deprived of full access to mainstream curriculum due to linguistically narrowing down the curriculum to which ELLs have access.

Consequently, ELLs generally achieve lower scores on mandatory high-stakes tests administered in English only, due to a long-term deprivation of the full access to the mainstream curriculum.

Mother’s Education and Years in the United States. The authors of the LISA study asserted that “One of the most consistent findings in the developmental literature is the positive association between parental education and children’s ability to do well in school” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 37). In addition, findings of the LISA study further indicated that ELLs’ English skills are directly influenced by level of their mother’s education, years in the United States and

56 whether father is present and working. “The higher the level of education a mother attains, the better her children are likely to do academically” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez- Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, pp. 37-38).

LISA’s claim is further supported by research findings of Unmuth (2012) who argued that “ELLs whose mothers had a bachelor’s degree or higher and who reached English proficiency by spring of their kindergarten year scored better on math and reading exams as eighth-graders than children whose mothers had less than a high school education” (p. 1). In addition, the longitudinal data released by the U.S. Department of Education in 2012 further indicated that children with the most highly educated mothers generally score best on math, reading and science assessments. In contrast, ELLs who were living in poverty with less-educated mothers needed much longer time to reach English proficiency than their counterparts whose mothers were better educated. Consequently, ELLs with less-educated mothers struggled much more with mandatory assessments than ELLs whose mothers had higher education.

The longitudinal study delineated previously grounded English language proficiency on the Oral Language Development Scale (OLDS), which measured listening comprehension, sophistication of the vocabulary, and ability to comprehend and create English. Additionally, findings of this study further indicated that ELLs whose mothers were highly educated commonly had the highest scores in all tested subjects, while ELLs with less-educated mothers scored lower on all tests, regardless of English proficiency or home language. Ultimately, findings of Unmuth (2012)

57 further underscored LISA’s claim in regards to correlation of mother’s education with ELLs’ academic performance.

English Language Support System. Research consistently indicates that the availability of English support classes for immigrant students compared to the influx of newcomers at educational institutions has been recognized as one of the most important variables that affect their intellectual growth (Hale, 2001). Nevertheless, sparse resources and the increasing number of immigrant students enrolled at nation’s schools pressure administrators to limit the English language support services for ELLs. Hence, the lack of an English support system for immigrant students results in their lower academic achievement. In addition, educational institutions are

continuously encountering a variety of issues and obstacles related to the lack of properly trained teachers of ELLs, who deliver the content area lessons in a manner appropriate for ELLs.

A variety of studies have been conducted in regards to the implementation and effectiveness of high school programs for ELLs. Cohen (2007) described his tutoring experience with Mario, one 12th grade EL student and his efforts to become an effective reader in English. According to Cohen, Mario’s reading deficiency was based primarily on the fact that he had not found an internal purpose for reading. When asked to read a passage, he read it without any emotion or interest. When Cohen asked about what Mario had just read, he was not able to answer the question. These reactions occurred whether Mario read aloud or silently. At every occasion, Mario had to re-read the section to come up with a response. Cohen concluded that

58 Mario had not learned to read strategically, thus, reading context to figure out what had been read and did not find a purpose for reading. Apparently, for Mario, being a struggling reader meant reading without emotion or interest. As an instructional remedy, Cohen asked Mario to attempt to create images in his mind when reading, in order to visualize the essence of what has been read. After reading each section of the assigned book, Mario summarized what he read in a form of a dialogue journal. This activity provided an opportunity for Mario to share with his tutor in writing what he has read. At the end of each week, Mario made poster-board presentations to his classmates participating in this program and turned in finished reports to his tutor.

Barrat and Crane (2011) obtained from the Utah State Office of Education the student-level data sets of all tenth and eleventh grade students who took the language proficiency test in 2008/09. The language proficiency datasets included overall scaled scores. In addition, the scores were further categorized as pre-emergent, emergent, intermediate, and advanced. Furthermore, the content assessment datasets included the number and percent of correct responses by content standard for each student. The authors of this study linked student records across assessments by an anonymous numerical identifier. The purpose of this study was to provide the information to the Utah State Office of Education regarding when English learners should be moved out of English support classes and be mainstreamed into regular content area classes. Findings resulting from the data analysis performed by Barrat and Crane (2011) showed that ELL students were outscored by native English speakers by an average of 1.3–1.6 standard deviations in both grades on the English language arts test and by

59 an average of 0.4–0.7 standard deviations on the mathematics test. This study

suggested that continuing demographic growth of ELLs in educational institutions warrants the need for greater support of ELLs in a variety of content areas.

Behavioral engagement (influenced by school problems and violence, relational engagement, cognitive engagement and gender). LISA places behavioral engagement right after English language proficiency as the second most important variable that affects the academic performance of ELLs. The researchers frequently used terms academic engagement and behavioral engagement interchangeably. Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, and Todorova (2008) defined “behavioral

engagement” as conduct that “specifically reflects students’ participation and efforts to perform academic tasks” as measured “when students do their best on classwork and homework, turn in assignments on time, pay attention and behave appropriately in class, and maintain good attendance” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, &

Todorova, 2008, p. 48). Boyer (1992) also supported this idea by suggesting that students should be educated regarding their responsibility to acquire education in relation to academic production and outcome. Hence, it is safe to assume that the engagement occurs when students make a cognitive investment in learning.

According to Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, and Todorova (2008, p. 48), “Teachers often reported that they found newcomer immigrant students to be more behaviorally engaged in their studies than nonimmigrant students.” The authors explained this phenomenon by giving new arrivals credit for working harder and more diligently than their second generation counterparts, because they, the new

60 arrivals, view the education in America as an opportunity for advancement. In

contrast, “the second generation immigrant students tend to take things for granted, are less motivated to study hard, and as a result, they lack in educational attainment behind the new arrivals” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 48).

Findings of the LISA study suggested that the behavioral engagement of new

arrivals and second generation ELLs has been equally influenced by a school’s

environment. Karatzias et al. (2002) suggested that this similarity in behavioral engagement between both generations of ELLs has been well supported by a variety of research findings. The authors argued that “A stressful school climate, in which a student experiences academic pressure, danger, discrimination, and/or the absence of supportive relationships, can undermine well-being, taxing the student’s ability to cope” (Karatzias et al., 2002). In contrast, it is fair to assume that safe and supportive educational climate promotes students’ well-being and educational attainment. Consequently, school context is extremely important in predicting the academic achievement of ELLs.

Furthermore, LISA suggested that there is a discrepancy in views between the parents of first generation ELLs and their teachers’ view on how they perceive

behavioral engagement of the first generation of ELLs. The authors of the LISA study explained that “While teachers tended to be positive about immigrant students, they did not think much of immigrant parents” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, &

Todorova, 2008, p. 136). The authors claimed that this phenomenon is largely due to teachers’ assumptions that “For them (parents of new arrivals) coming to the U.S. is

61 the goal. Once they get here, it is ‘mission accomplished’ for them” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 137). This discrepancy in the system is further highlighted by the fact that children of immigrant parents adopt their values mainly from their parents.

School Problems and Violence. Ample research has demonstrated that effective schools have strong, determined and positive leadership, caring “highly qualified” teachers, while maintaining a safe and orderly school climate. In contrast, highly segregated schools with weak leadership, less qualified teachers and toxic environments that obstruct learning without the respect for linguistic, cultural and ethnic differences of multicultural students generally result in lower

academic achievement of all enrolled students. Low academic expectations, scarce educational resources, school violence and high drop-out rates are all significant risk factors for educational access. Sadly, newly arrived and many second generation immigrant ELLs are forced by economic circumstances to attend schools that undermine the capacity to concentrate on their education. LISA reports that “When we asked students to tell us about their perceptions of school problems and violence, an alarming number of them spoke of crime, violence, feeling unsafe, gang activity, weapons, drug dealing and racial conflicts” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-

Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 91). Similarly, Portes and Rumbaut (2001) also

reported that second generation students attending unsafe schools plagued with gangs academically achieved significantly less than their counterparts attending better schools and equally experienced lower self-esteem and higher depressive symptoms

62 (p. 210).

Relational Engagement. The findings of the LISA study have pointed out the existence of close relationships between numbers of key variables. The LISA

recognized relational engagement as the most important contributor to the behavioral engagement of new arrivals, followed by attitudes toward school, emotional well- being and academic self-efficacy as having a direct impact on predicting academic achievement of newcomers to the U. S. Research further suggested that new arrivals lack behind the relational engagement of the second generation ELLs. Hence, first generation ELLs are mostly “lost” in their unfamiliar environment, and generally have lower self-esteem than their second generation counterparts. Due to the relatively short time of living in the United States, new arrivals are struggling to establish their sense of belonging in a new country. In addition, lacking sufficient English skills, new arrivals are in a position of “passive recipients” of information, instead of actively seeking help at school. This assumption is supported by LISA’s claim that “Self-esteem, a close correlate of emotional well-being, is often

compromised for disoriented, recently arrived immigrant youth” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 46). In contrast, the second generation ELLs feel “at home” in the United States and their personal self-esteem and educational confidence translates into higher academic achievement.

Previous research has suggested that the relational engagement of new arrivals lacks behind the relational engagement of second generation ELLs. The first

63 their American-born counterparts who have first-hand knowledge of American

society. Due to the relatively short time living in the United States, new arrivals are struggling to establish their sense of belonging in a new country. The findings of the LISA longitudinal study suggested that the “emphasis on social networks makes sense – the presence of family members, friends, and friends of friends in the new destination lowers costs associated with one’s arrival, and eases the transition in myriad ways” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 56).

Cognitive Engagement and Academic Self-Efficacy. Authors of the LISA study defined academic self-efficacy as “the belief that one is competent and in control of one’s learning at least to some degree” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 46). Research suggested that academic self-efficacy positively contributes to students’ engagement at school. Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, and Todorova (2008) suggested that “immigrant children and their families arrive eager to face any challenge, but too seldom have all the resources and skills to achieve

academic success on their own” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 53). Therefore, it is fair to conclude that in order to be academically successful, immigrant students need to adapt to American society as soon as possible. The authors of the LISA study asserted that “Most immigrant students recognize the sacrifices their parents have made for them” (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008, p. 31).

However, new arrivals’ parents are largely unable to help their children with social, academic and cultural assimilation because the lack of familiarity with

64 American mainstream society prevents them from being helpful to their children in this regard. In contrast, the second generation of immigrant students is American born; therefore, they do not have to face the adaptation hurdle of new arrivals. They are fully “adapted” to American mainstream society, although they still may have to face a variety of academic and social obstacles due to a lesser level of adaptation of their foreign born parents. Finally, by the third generation, most students are English dominant; hence, they are fully “adapted” to American society and their academic achievement is not being inhibited by hurdles that first and second generation of ELLs have to face.

Gender. According to Werner (1989), gender has been frequently confirmed as a correlate of resilience. In addition, the author further suggested that longitudinal studies find that women are generally more skilled in accessing and using social supports and resources. This hypothesis is well supported by LISA that reported 13%