Ejes de la evaluación

During the past two decades, interest in immigration to Greece has grown, resulting in a significant amount of relevant research and publications. Reviewing this literature in detail is beyond the scope of this study. Therefore, the literature review in this section will focus on studies written by both Greek and other scholars, who deal with the socio-economic integration of immigrants in Greek society. The purpose is to briefly review the existing literature on integration in Greece and to identify its limits with relation to the topics that are

relevant to this study. The literature review intends to locate this study within the existing work on the subject, and to explain its contribution.

Research studies on integration began to multiply from the early 2000s onward, especially after the introduction of Law 3386/2005, ‘on entry, residence and integration of third country nationals in Greek territory’ and funding allocated to migration and integration studies. Before that, the weakness in capturing the size of the transformation that was taking place in Greece, by viewing the phenomenon as temporary, and hence as neglecting the implications for integration (Glytsos, 1995) has been clearly reflected in the literature of the first decade (1990s).

During the second decade (2000s), the relevant literature on integration focuses, inter alia, on four main themes: immigration policy, economy and labour-market integration, social exclusion versus inclusion, and issues of identity and culture (Hatziprokopiou, 2006). Many early publications were mainly descriptive and particularly concerned with either the demographic and/or economic characteristics of immigrants (e.g., Petrinioti, 1993; Fakiolas, 1995), or with immigrants’ rights and legal status (e.g., Theodoropoulos and Sykiotou, 1994).

In other studies, integration is examined in relation to the labour market (Maratou-Alipranti, 2002), ethnic mobilisation (Petronoti, 2001) and policy developments (Fakiolas, 2003), with the focus often being on specific migrant groups (e.g., Markova, 2001 on Bulgarians and, Labrianidis and Lyberaki, 2001 on Albanians). In this context, the Albanian immigrant community – though this is in part justified, because of its size – constitutes the main target group of a large numbers of studies, while the sampling framework is geographically restricted to the country’s capital. On the other hand, it is estimated that the low quality and small quantity of the statistical data make it difficult for scholars and researchers to carry out a comparative analysis among immigrant groups (Baldwin-Edwards, 2005).

However, as Petronoti and Triandafyllidou (2003, p. 11) note, there is an urgent need to locate empirical studies within wider theoretical frameworks concerning globalisation, capitalism, multiculturalism and modernity. At the same time, patterns of interaction between migrants and native populations during that period remain largely under-researched. The reason for this, according to Hatziprokopiou (2006), lies in the understanding of the phenomenon mainly from two perspectives: of the host society and of the migrants themselves, who lack coherent frameworks and theoretical concern. Further, he claims that no efforts have been made to ‘synthesise dialectically the two perspectives and develop a coherent framework of analysis in order to understand the dynamism of the phenomenon, its contradictions and the patterns of interaction’ (2006, p. 67).

We will now go on to explore the more recent research that reflects the latest developments in the field of migration studies in Greece. The literature reviewed in this section is grouped along the themes considered most relevant to the research hypothesis in the Greek context.

2.5.2.1 Measuring socio-economic integration

While adopting a novel methodological approach toward the Greek context, the study entitled Domestic Workers and Social Integration of Migrant Women: Analysis of the Sample Survey Results (Bellas, 2012) elaborates both qualitatively and quantitatively on some of the key socio-economic and demographic characteristics, as well as the level of socio-economic integration, of domestic workers from Albania, Georgia, Moldova, and the Philippines residing in Greece. The research typology is based on a dual analysis of the individual views of the respondents about the quality of institutions along with the opportunities that the institutions provide. The triangulation of the research data provided the opportunity for the identification of both quantitative and qualitative factors that have a strong impact on the integration process. For the data collection a questionnaire with 43 sets of closed questions was used, and was completed by 451 immigrant women in 2012. For the further statistical analysis of the data, ten individual indicators were constructed, and one general social integration index following the model of the Migrant Integration Policy Index. The study reveals that Ukrainian domestic workers display the highest general social integration indicator (0.56) and are followed by Albanian women (0.54) and Filipino women (0.51), while Moldovans display the lowest integration rate (0.50).

With the goal of establishing an integration index for the Greek context, Kontis and Bezevengis (2011) identify the qualitative and quantitative indicators for monitoring immigrants’ social integration. The study examines six social integration indicators: labour market, housing, health and welfare, social and political participation, education, socio-cultural and psychological adaptation. The key findings of this research project were based on a national sample survey of 1,843 immigrants and 395 institutions or bodies responsible for integration policies. Additional statistical databases of the Hellenic Statistical Authority (EL.STAT) were used, such as the Labour Force Survey (LFS), the Survey about Family Income, Living Conditions (EU-SILC) and the Household Budget Survey (HBS). Regarding employment, the objective indicators showed an advanced degree of integration, particularly in relation to labour market access and working hours, while subjective indicators presented a less positive image about integration. The main problem is low insurance contribution, low

wages and high hetero-employment. On the contrary, the housing image appears to be very positive with a high degree of similarity between the native population and immigrants. The same positive picture is also seen in the health-welfare dimension with three quarters of immigrants being satisfied with health services. While subjective indicators show positive evaluation values in education, objective indicators, on the contrary, show a high rate of immigrant children who drop out of secondary education and a low level of Greek language knowledge among immigrants. Finally, the dimension of social and political participation presents a moderate and very positive image, except with regards to the very low participation in institutions of political and social representation.

Using data provided by local authorities, Baldwin-Edwards’s study on the integration of immigrants in Athens (2005) focuses on local integration indicators in Athens. The report’s innovation lies in the adoption of Vermeulen’s analytical typology of indicators of social integration, which is applied by the author to the case of Athens. More specifically, the statistical data analysis focuses on three stages of integration: (a) residency and employment;

(b) family reunification and configuration; and (c) formulation of ethnic minorities or/and assimilation. After the evaluation of the available data of the progress made regarding the integration of immigrants, the author concludes that there is evidence for the argument of

‘structural exclusion’ of the immigrant population in Greece.

2.5.2.2 Integration in the labour market

Examining the patterns of integration in the labour market, Kasimis and Papadopoulos (2012) analyze the economic and institutional framework conditioning the integration of immigrants in the Greek labour market. The studies make use of primary data collected at the local level, while analyzing secondary data from the labour force survey and the evaluation of social integration and anti-discrimination policies in the labour market. The volume is divided into two parts. The first part consists of four texts which set the framework for the interpretation of the basic themes. The second part includes the individual analysis of the empirical research at the local level. In these studies one may discern the local dimensions of immigrants’

employment and mobility in different areas of Greece. The authors conclude that immigrants have fueled the informal labour market. This in turn means that the job positions available to immigrants require low skills, which imply low salaries and limited opportunities to improve their social and professional status.

The main purpose of the study of Cavounidis (2012) is to answer the question as to whether and to what extent the integration of immigrants in the labour market has been

achieved. The methodology compares immigrants and the native population in different spheres of their economic activity and employment, through the use of statistical data selected from the 2008 Labour Force Survey. The examination of the data concludes that immigrant workers’ participation and employment rates are at higher levels compared to Greek nationals, while unemployment rates are similar for both groups. These differences relate to the sectoral and occupational composition of employment, to employment status and to salaries. Finally, the author makes specific policy recommendations for the mitigation of any related inequalities and for the convergence of the Greek experience with the European standards of immigrant integration into the labour market.

The study of Maroukis (2010) is predicated on the notion that the structure of the Greek economy, in relation to social conditions, is central to determining not only supply but also labour force demand. The empirical research is based on interviews conducted with 560 Albanian immigrant households, 12 representatives of Albanian associations and 128 companies that employ Albanian workers. Interviews were also conducted with civil servants from all employment offices in the Attica prefecture. The study arrives at the conclusion that the main job positions for immigrants are still ‘protected’ by labour restrictions and social marginalisation.

2.5.2.3 Integration and social capital

The study of Iosifidis and Kizos (2012) emphasizes research findings relating to the role and function of social networks and social capital, in the social integration of immigrants in the host society. It presents the findings of two research studies on the integration experiences of immigrant men and women in Western Greece and the attitudes and perceptions of the local population about the immigrants living and working in these areas. Interviews were conducted with immigrants living in Western Greece as well as with the native population.

More specifically, 221 interviews were conducted with immigrants of different nationalities:

Albanians (47.5 per cent), Bulgarians (12.2 per cent), Romanians (9.5 per cent), East Europeans (5.9 per cent), Western Europeans (2.3 per cent), Asians (18.1 per cent) and Africans (4.2 per cent). Furthermore, 438 interviews were conducted with Greek citizens with the use of a closed questionnaire for the measurement of attitudes. The findings highlight the crucial role that social networks play in the shaping of the conditions of the social integration of immigrants into local economies and societies. In this context, social contacts between immigrants and the native population appear quite weakened and superficial. The study

shows the clear tendency for the gradual creation of 'parallel societies' with less communication between immigrants and locals.

Focusing on social capital, Kontis (2009) examines the relationship between social capital and the migration process, the importance of granting citizenship to immigrants in the context of an active public policy addressing the integration and status of immigrants in Greece. This collective volume addresses a number of issues that focus on citizenship and integration, social capital and integration, housing, political participation and the evaluation of national migration policies of European countries, in comparison to the Greek case. The general conclusion is that by following a model of 'differential exclusion' and by selecting the implementation of non-interventionist policies for the integration of immigrants into society, but also by selecting a restrictive citizenship policy, the state leaves room only for the partial integration of immigrants. More specifically, immigrants participate in the labour market;

they enjoy some individual and social rights, while the state displays a degree of tolerance towards undocumented migrants, but does not proceed to grant them political rights.

2.5.2.4 Patterns of integration

The purpose of the study of Papadopoulou (2006) is the interpretation of different forms and processes of immigrants’ social integration into Greek society. The author distinguishes between integration and incorporation. The former means participation in the public sphere, while the latter refers to the adoption of society’s value system. The empirical data is drawn from 1,064 structured questionnaires conducted with 532 immigrants and from 30 open interviews with representatives of immigrant associations. The study concludes that immigrants are integrated into Greek society through processes akin to those followed by the native population. It also follows the argument that integration is clearly tied to legalization, which in turn depends on the availability of employment opportunities.

Focusing on the patterns of integration of Albanians, Kasimati (2006) assesses the level of integration of Albanian immigrants in the labour market and in the social life of Greece. The research draws on empirical data from the Attica region, involving both Albanian and Greek participants. More specifically, 30 Albanians and 78 Greeks were examined using the method of the biographical approach (life stories). In the study’s results a convergence of views between Greeks and Albanians is observed regarding the social integration of Albanian immigrants. Moreover, the results showed a higher rate of integration in the labour market than in the social level. The final conclusion of the study is that the integration of Albanian immigrants has yet to be achieved.

Applying a similar method, Hatziprokopiou (2006) examines the integration of immigrants in Thessaloniki. In the field research 208 interviews were conducted with Albanian and Bulgarian immigrants living in Thessaloniki. The study makes use of structured questionnaires for the selection of quantitative data and interviews for the collection of qualitative data. The author concludes that immigrants constitute a social group that is constructed along the basis of exclusionary mechanisms. Despite this fact, immigrants organize their life in the host society through the adoption of specific integration strategies.

The latter are formed on the basis of informal networks and in a multi-level interaction with the local community. Finally, despite the different exclusion processes, the author concludes that inevitably, immigrants have become an integral part of Greek social reality.

The review of the literature on the socio-economic integration of immigrants highlighted a number of theoretical and methodological approaches. The main approaches discuss the qualitative and quantitative dimensions of immigrants’ integration into the labour market as well as the types and nature of their employment in relation to the needs of the labour market. Some other approaches expand their problematic to include the relationship between socio-economic capital and citizenship, and the attitudes and perceptions of the local population regarding the integration of immigrants. It is worth noting that the most recent studies on the subject (e.g., Bellas, 2012; Kontis and Bezevengis, 2011) develop a coherent framework of both quantitative and qualitative analysis by locating their approach in a wider theoretical framework. As periodic statistical measurement of integration indicators are an important parameter of defining specific objectives of states’ integration policies, international reports (e.g., OECD, 2013b) focus on the evaluation of both immigration policy and the specific integration policies implemented by the Greek state. In terms of research methodology, a tendency is observed in adopting inter-disciplinary approaches in which the researchers seek to integrate (theoretically) their empirical research, which is actually not linked functionally and scientifically. Thus, some studies are restricted to the simple description of quantitative data without further analyzing empirical findings based on a theoretical model. Furthermore, the sample selection, in other cases, appears problematic due to the fact that it is not initiated from a specific sampling method. Sometimes, we observe a lack of complex interpretative tools or the absence of a triangulation method of findings which are selected from different sources and collected using different methods.

To sum up, despite serious efforts, the bibliographical context for the study of immigrants’ socio-economic integration in Greece remains theoretically marginalised and methodologically limited. Furthermore, the studies regarding the means and strategies of

migrant integration appear limited as far as their arguments and data are concerned. In the context of this problematic, the present study aims to contribute to the broadening of the thematic, by recording quantitatively and by interpreting, in depth, the integration strategies of three immigrant groups, always in line with the existing socio-political environment.

Our research, de facto, as well as because of additional objective difficulties, cannot avoid some of the weaknesses found in previous studies – e.g., the field research in the wider area of the capital and the restricted sampling framework. However, the theoretical approach of the immigrants’ integration process from the perspective of the quantitative bottom-up approach, in association with both the comparative analysis of the three immigrant groups and the application of the statistical model of the multiple linear regression, will contribute to the enrichment of the general study about the socio-economic integration of immigrants in Greece.